UUU1I
mill
ETRUSCAN BOLOGNA.
SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF THE PALEO-ETH
BY CAVALIERE M .i
4. NEOLITHIC TOMBS OF CANTALUF
S1UEX IMPLEMENTS FROM THE TIBEfl BED.
NSTRUMENTS SCATTERED ABOUTTHE
-iX IMPLEMENTS NEAR CORN'
CEOLOC1CALSECTION
LOGICAL REMAINS OF CENTRAL ITALY.
Ross: 1866-7
TRACES OF THE 6ROMZ.E ACE AMONGST THE ROMANS
7. ARMS OF THE BRONZE ACE
VI
r.
VOLCANOI.SprLATIUM
ETRUSCAN BOLOGNA
A STUDY.
BY
RICHARD F. BURTON,
AUTHOR OF ' PILGRIMAGE TO EL MEDINAH AND MECCA,'
'CITY OF THE SAINTS AND ROCKY MOUNTAINS TO CALIFORNIA," ETC.
LONDON:
SMITH, ELDER, & CO., 15 WATERLOO PLACE.
1876.
\A II tights reserved.]
ttraam (fflnfr,
PALL MALL.
Nov. i, 1875.
DEAR LADY OTWAY,
Be pleased to consider this little volume
a sign tJtat the Wanderer in Bologna has not
forgotten your gracious and graceful hospitality,
and believe me
Ever yours sincerely,
RICHARD F. BURTON.
LADY OTWAY.
PREFACE.
I NEED hardly say that this little volume offers no
novelty beyond introducing to the English reader
the valuable results of Etruskische Forschungen in
modern Italy. It can hardly be termed uncalled
for. The discovery of the Bolognese Certosa which
took place some six years ago, requires, for study,
reference to a number of pamphlets and scattered
letters, which we must not expect to see in our
libraries. Other ' finds,' noticed in ' Etruscan
Bologna,' are even less accessible ; and even my
own list is not quite complete.
Like the Gipsy dialect, the Etruscan tongue has
fascinated a host of scholars. The latest result is
a belief that in it ' we have a waif of one of those
many extinct families of speech which have gone to
viii PREFACE.
build up the languages of the present world ' (Sayce).
For the moment we can only say that the problems
of its origin and its position have not been solved ;
that some Italic vocables have been detected, or
rather guessed, and that there are, perhaps, a few
' Turanian affinities,' possibly derived from Finnish,
and pointing, haply, to an age when the Aryan
limits were not definitively laid down. Some day,
as linguistic science is in despair, we may bring to
light a long bilingual inscription, that will prove a
veritable Rosetta Stone. Hitherto, the only keys
applied to the ethnology of the mysterious race,
which taught Rome her arts and arms, have been
' glottology ' and comparative philology, while not
a little violence has accompanied the application.
In this volume, however, we shall find Professor
Calori, to mention no others, searching the sepul-
chres, and supplementing linguistic by craniological
and other physiological studies.
Finally, ' Etruscan Bologna ' attempts for the
first time to describe the North-Eastern, which may
be the eldest, Etrurian Confederation, while the
PREFACE. ix
works of Dennis and other notable English autho-
rities treat mainly, if not only, of Middle Etruria,
almost corresponding with modern Tuscany.
I must again conclude with my old apology
for minor sins of omission and commission — the
' single revise ' excuse.
RICHARD F. BURTON.
HAYDARABAD (DEKHAN) :
March 4, 1876.
CONTENTS.
PART I.
THE WORKS OF MAN.
SECTION PACE
I. NEW BOLOGNA ..... 3
II. OLD BOLOGNA . . . . 14
III. PUBLIC COLLECTIONS OF ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT
BOLOGNA. . . . . .21
IV. PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, ESPECIALLY THE VILLANOVA. 48
PART II.
THE ABODES OF MAN.
I. VARIOUS FINDS . . . . -79
II. FURTHER AFIELD, THE CERTOSA AND CASALECCHIO . 93
III. To MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO . .107
IV. CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . 137
xii CONTENTS.
PART III.
THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
SECTION PAGE
I. THE ETRUSCAN MAN .... 149
II. THE ETRUSCAN MAN (continued] . . . 163
III. CRANIOLOGY . . . . . . 175
IV. PROFESSOR CALORI . . . . . 187
V. THE ETRUSCAN LANGUAGE . . . .212
i
VI. INSCRIPTIONS . . . . . 233
VII. MODERN BOLOGNESE TONGUE . . . 242
APPENDIX . . . . . . 263
INDEX . . . . . , . 271
SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF THE PALEO-ETHNOLOGICAL
REMAINS OF CENTRAL ITALY . . To face Title
Errata
Page 71, line 28, for M. F. Max Muller's theory, read M. F. Max
Miiller himself
,, 189, line 23, for Dion Halicarnassus, raw? Dion. Halicarnassius
,, 258, line 19, for So. n' andato, read El xe anda
Etruscan Bologna
CONTENTS.
PART III.
THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
SECTION
I. THE ETRUSCAN MAN .... 149
II. THE ETRUSCAN MAN (continued] . . . . 163
TTT.
ETRUSCAN BOLOGNA
PART I.
THE WORKS OF MAN
' Le moindre debris echappe des mines de Pantiquite nous en apprend
plus que tous les livres '
RAOUL ROCHETTE
SECTION I.
NEW BOLOGNA.
I PROPOSE to write a study of the old ' House of
Aucnus,' the venerable ex-capital of Northern
Etruria, promising never to borrow from the guide-
books, and premising that the sooner they borrow
from me the better for them. Not a line concerning
the ancient city of Felsina, lately brought to light,
appears in Murray (1869); and right few in Bae-
deker (1873). Travellers, therefore, daily pass
through without even hearing of our many admirable
collections of archaeology, and without seeing that
excavations are being pushed on with exemplary
vigour. The stranger-herd visits the Art-galleries,
asks after the Sta. Cecilia of Raffaele and the
S. Sebastian of Francesco Raibolini, ' detto il
Francia ; ' it stands wondering under the shadow
of La Garisenda, the most towering of the leaning
towers ; it admires the long miles of arcades and —
straightway it is gone. Still ' Bononia docet,' and
B 2
4 THE WORKS OF MAN.
we students can now learn from her the tale of her
older world.
And first of the site. The rich plains of Lom-
bardy to the north-west, and the sub-Alpine mari-
time lowlands of Friuli and Venice to the north-east,
Circumpadane Etruria forming the thigh-piece of
the Italian boot, here abut southwards upon the
Apennines, the mighty suture which, immediately
north of Genoa, sweeping from west to east, gradu-
ally assumes a south-eastern trend. Were I speak-
ing geographically I should say that they begin
in southernmost Italy, bend round the north-west
limit, form the Alps, bifurcate at the great European
nucleus of Switzerland, where they send off a
branch to form the Rheingau ; and, after becoming
the Dinarians, they terminate in Greece, the whole
being shaped like an elongated arch or a tuning-
fork. The great steppe of Upper Italy is mostly
composed of riverine valleys, feeding the Adriatic
Gulf ; the main trunks, commencing with the eastern-
most, where Italy geographically begins, being the
Isonzo, Tagliamento, Livenza and Piave, the Bacchi-
glione and Brenta of Padua, the Adige or Etsch,
the network of the Po Proper, and the Po di Pri-
maro alias the Reno. Many of these historical
XEW BOLOGNA. 5
streams run, it is well known, upon planes several
feet higher than the adjacent lands ; and the only
tunnel between the Duchy of Gorizia (Go'rz) and
Bologna is that pierced through a vein of the
extinct Euganean volcanoes (Colli Euganei} by the
ex-Duke of Modena : like many an English gentle-
man of the old school, he would not allow his senses
and his feelings to be wounded by the ' destruction
of all feudalism.'
Near the south-western extremity of this noble
prairie lies BOLOGNA, with her head resting upon
the gentle slopes which represent the foot-hills of the
Apennines, and with her feet extended towards the
broad, fat Reno Valley. Her site is in the heart of
the temperates ; and, though she complains of wintry
cold and summery heat, she is amply blessed by
' Nature and Nurture.' There is nothing bad in
Bologna but the water, which, hardened by the
dissolution of calcareous rocks, chaps the skin and
offends the internals. Presently, however, the old
Roman aqueduct will flow once more, and the one
real nuisance will be effectually abated.1 Nothing
will then remain but to cheapen and to improve the
1 See Analisi di alcune acque potabili della Cittd. di Bologna, by
Cav. Domenico Santagata, 1872.
6 THE WORKS OF MAN.
post-office — a civilized instrument which sadly wants
refurbishing throughout Italy.
The characteristics of Bologna are the Arcade
and the Leaning Tower. The former is of every age
and shape ; we even find the rude wooden archi-
traves and the post props — a palpable survival of
the Etruscan temple which we shall visit at Marza-
botto. The finished arch resting upon the classical
column also dates from the days when it was appa-
rently first employed, namely, in the Diocletianian
Palace at Spalato. The result is that of an English
Chester and a Switzer Bern, made artistic and
beautiful, combined with the timber appurtenances
of Tours — the most mediaeval amid civilised French
cities. Of the hundred towers lately described by
the learned and laborious Senator Count Giovanni
Gozzadini,1 many if not most of them are distinctly
out of the perpendicular. This is not the case in the
adjoining cities ; and I would explain the fact by the
ground having been so much worked by successive
races and generations of men. All are mere defor-
mities, rickety minarets, which, as the courses of
1 Delle Torri gentilizie di Bologna e delle famiglie alle quali
prima appartennerono : Studii, Bologna, 1874, with plates. The
large 8vo. is considered the most interesting of Count Gozzadini's
twenty-four publications.
NEW BOLOGNA. 7
masonry show, were begotten to be vertical. The
numerous palaces of brick, without and with stone
dressings, show that the master-hand of Palladio,
who adorned Vicenza with the meanest of material,
has passed here as at Milan ; and suggests that
New London need not go to Scotland for her
granite — a material to be used sparingly, as it ' kills '
all its neighbours. The ' Palazzo ' of the humblest
noble is vast enough to contain two of the largest
boxes that poor Belgravia can boast ; and the in-
clined planes of staircase, evidently made for the
comfort and convenience of the grandee's destrier,
contrast wonderfully with the companion-ladder of
masonry which, rodded and carpetted. suffices
between Teuton-land and Scandinavia for the
millionaire of the North.
These are features of a bygone day, yet
Bologna is not without her ' modern improvements.'
The Via Miola, lately repaired, is one of the
handsomest and the most striking in the whole
peninsula. The ' Seliciata ' (slab-pavement) is gradu-
ally extending, and, where the handsome equipages
pass, flag-bands have been let into the torturing
cobble-stones. The thoroughfares have changed
their saintly names for those of modern patriots ;
and the Strada di S. Felice can hardly complain that
8 THE WORKS OF MAN.
it has become ' Ugo Bassi.' Clubs abound ; besides
the Societa Felsinea and the Domino Club, the latter
on the small scale and the exclusive system which
makes the reputation of the Marlborough, there is
also, under the presidency of Count F. Carega di
Muricci, the Club Alpino dell' Emilia (or della
Romagna), a section of the Italiano whose head-
quarters are at Turin.1 There are two chief news-
papers, the Monitore and the Patria, and a handy
Italian guide-book.2 The shops are tolerable, and
the hotels are new, and upon a large scale. The
trotting horse has been naturalised ; the public com-
missionnaire is firmly established ; and the policeman,
has, like his brother of Milan, confessedly borrowed
a uniform from the London ' Peeler.' Still, the heart
of the city, the great square, is essentially media
evo, as when she adopted her famous watchword
' Libertas. ' Huge umbrellas, like those manufac-
tured in England for the Court of murderous
Dahome, shelter the buxom market-women, the
lineal descendants of the Umbrians and the Etrus-
1 An energetic member, Signer F. Paventi,was kind enough to give
me its first publication.
- Guida di Bologna e suoi dintorni del Cav. Michelangelo Gua-
landi. Quarta Edizione, interamente rifusa dall' Autore. Bologna :
Nicola Zanichelli, 1875.
NEW BOLOGNA. 9
cans ; and King Hensius, after a lapse of five
centuries, would find little difficulty in recognising
the view from his prison windows. The statue of
Neptune (so out of place in an inland city) stands
as it stood in A.D. 1564. I would leave it there,
although statues in the open air appear some-
what like a tree in a drawing-room ; but I would
entirely abolish the boys who are dangling dolphins
by the tail, and the handsome feminine monsters who
are practising a very peculiar operation. If you
wish to see the Contadini, go on Saturday morning to
the section of the main street laid off by hand-rails ;
it is a fine, tall, and sturdy race, which still affects
the pastrano, or brigand cloak of murret-coloured
wool or of mezza-lana (half-cotton), and the furs
which some day will be more generally adopted in
England.
The result of this intimate blending of the
mediaeval with the modern soon makes itself felt.
There is a something in the presence of Bologna
that softens the soul ; a venerable aspect appeal-
ing to sentiments which men do not wear upon
the sleeve ; a solemnity of vast half-ruined hall,
and of immense deserted arcade ; a pathetic vista of
unfinished church and closed palace, relics of the
io THE WORKS OF MAN.
poetical Past which have projected themselves into
the prosaic Present. You learn with pleasure that
you can lose your way in the long, labyrinthine
streets and alleys, wynds and closes — such contrasts
with the painful rectangular regularity of Mann-
heim, New York, and Buenos Ayres. The artistic
Greeks laid out straight lines of intersecting tho-
roughfare ; but they had aesthetic reasons for the
plan which led to the central temple; and they
applied it to their miniature official towns, where
the square and ritualistic form, oriented to the four
cardinal points, must have compared pleasantly
with the large irregular suburbs beyond the walls.
We moderns have adopted it and, adapting it to
a huge scale, we have produced not a copy but a
caricature. Briefly to describe the effect of the
aristocratic old city, the ' moral capital of the
Emilia,' you have only to remember that of Man-
chester or of Birmingham, and to conjure up into
imagination the clear contrary. The 'centre of
trade' may have a poetry of its own, but it is
certainly not ' sensuous ' as Milton advises ; and
here we have a mediaeval castle dwarfing the mass
of bran-new semi-detached villas.
The citizens and peasantry of Bologna are one
NEW BOLOGNA. 11
of the finest of Italian races, distinguished not only
for physique, but by good fighting qualities, by a
peculiar vivacity of mind (sveltezza d1 ingenio) and
by a fund of broad humour which is made broader
by the ' burr ' of their peculiar dialect Yet within
the walls all speak Italian, and the same is the case
with the ' contadini,' especially near the Tuscan
frontier.
After what we have heard about Papal misrule
and want of progress, we might expect at Bologna,
which is essentially Roman, a portentous display of
ignorance, superstition, and violence. It is only fair
to own that the reverse is notably the fact, and
that Bologna still justifies her motto ' Libertas.' I
can hardly wonder that there are educated men
who regret the change to ' Eleutheromania ' and
' Italiomania.'
The section called ' Society ' is exceptional as
the aspect of their home. The effects of the media
are that universal civility and ' exquisite amenity '
which have not been unnoticed by northern travel-
lers. It is, in fact, 'a rare land of courtesy,' an
uncorrupted Tuscany. Many families date from
the Middle Ages, when the city was ruled by a
Governor and forty Senators, Aristos who utterly
12 THE WORKS OF MAN.
scouted the idea of a ' Lower house/ and — aristocracy
is a rule of honour. Throughout Italy the richard
is for the most part a thrifty, if not a penurious,
personage, who lives hard the wrong way, and who
often, like the famous bishop,
Will die from want of what he has.
At Bologna parsimony is the exception. The
wealthy nobles keep large establishments ; their
equipages and liveries would ornament a capital ;
and they do not dine in secret — a rare circum-
stance in the ' bel paese.' For their hospitality the
Anthropological Congress of 1871 can answer ; all
who had any claim upon their attention were
received with open arms. This is probably due
to the fact that Bologna has hitherto escaped the
peine forte et dure of the foreign colony ; only two
English families, two French, and a few of Spanish
blood appear amongst the sixty or seventy that
represent the Upper Ten, and all of them are ac-
quisitions. The same cannot be said of Rome,
Florence, and Naples, where, naturally enough, the
stranger is excluded till he has passed a long and
a somewhat rigid probation. The university at the
' Mater Studiorum,' so famed for Professors of both
sexes, still enjoys a green old age ; and this society
NEW BOLOGNA. 13
does not characterise anything beyond and above
chaff and chit-chat as una seccatura — a ' devilish
good word/ said Byron, but the most terrible in the
neo- Latin vocabulary. They remember
The all Etruscan three —
Dante and Petrarch, and scarce less they
The Bard of Prose, creative spirit ! he
Of the Hundred Tales of Love ;
and they do not forget that ' honneur oblige? Hence
*
we explain the saying that you are sure of returning
to Bologna; and thus we account for the feeling
that removal to the nearest thriving port, out of
Italy, is a real lapse from grace. These venerable
civilisations have their peculiar cachet ; an aroma
like that of wine stored long in the cellar — the
flavour is independent of instruction or education,
in the limited sense of the words, and, like constitu-
tionalism, it must be a growth, not a graft. Briefly,
even the English bourgeois begins to realise at
Bologna the full sense and significance of ' Northern
Barbarian ; ' and, perhaps, he remembers a fine
specimen of the British Philistine, Dr. Johnson.
14 THE WORKS OF MAN.
SECTION II.
OLD BOLOGNA.
BUT Bologna must not seduce us with her modern
attractions ; we have no time to dwell on the me-
mories of Michelangelo and Francia, the Caraccis
and Domenichino, Galvani, Mezzofanti, and Achille
Marozzo, the creator of our modern Art of Arms.
We come here to inspect the vestiges of a day long
gone by, to seek with Thucydides, the history of
the people in its sepulchres, to detect under the
earth which covers the Etruscan tombs the secrets
of their civilisation. The researches which began
systematically in 1856 have made study an easy
matter. Things have greatly changed since Des-
Vergers could write of Pelasgian Spina, Atria, and
other Circumpadane cities : ' Elles ont laisse bien
peu de traces dans le souvenir des hommes, et les
traces sont si legeres qu'elles n'ont plus ni forme
ni couleur.' Between 1825-7 Zecchi was able
to issue his four 8vos., describing the sepulchral
OLD BOLOGNA. 15
monuments of the cemetery of Bologna, and illus-
trating them with 152 plates. It is generally
believed that the first Etruscan Federation of
Twelve Cities was founded, west of the Apennines,
on the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea ; and the date
is laid about the fourteenth century B.C. The chief
witness is the Karnak inscription of the ' Pharaoh '
Merien Phtah (Menephtah I.), son and successor
of Ramses the Great (II. of nineteenth dynasty),
which mentions, amongst the invaders of the Egyp-
tian Delta from the ' regions of the sea, the isles
of the sea/ Sicily and Sardinia, the Lycians, and,
to quote no other names, the ' Turis'a/ or ' Tur-
scha' (Tursci, Turski, or Tusci),1 the Greek
Thyrsenoi, who occupied Tyrrhenia. After over-
populating the land, they crossed the backbone of
1 The Eugubine Tables (commented upon by Lepsius), of which five
are in Etruscan and two in Latin characters, give, as variants of Tuscus,
Tursce, Turscer, Tuscum, and, in the fourth line, Turskum. The
Vicomte de Rougd (Revue Archceo., Nouvelle Se'rie, 8th year, August
1867) translates ' Turis'a (Tyrrhenus) cceperat caput belli totius, bellator
omnis regionis ejus adduxerat uxorem (et) liberos suos,' and he remarks
that, had the Etruscans not failed, ' une colonie Tyrrhe"nienne cut de-
vance" Alexandre de plus de dix siecles.' Chabas (Etudes sur FAntiq.,
&•<:., 1872), in a new version of this important inscription, makes the
leader not the ' Tursha ' (Etruscans), but Marmaion, King of the
Lybians, and son of Teit or Deid, who, after the battle on the left of
the Nile, escaped to the north, leaving in the hands of the enemy 890
Etruscan hands and 6,369 Lybian trophies. The word ' Raseni' occurs
for the first time in Dion. Hal., and thus it is comparatively modern.
1 6 THE WORKS OF MAN.
the country, and conquered the Aryan Umbrians,
whose mariere and terramare (pile-villages and
kitchen-middens) — not to be confounded with the
subsequent Etruscan — still remain. These races
were familiar with metal-working, and they had
succeeded the ' great ocean of Turanians ' which
that highly-distinguished Mongol scholar, Prof.
Paul Hunfalvy, would call ' An-Aryans;' and again
these, perhaps, the men of the latest Tertiary or
of the earliest Quaternary epoch. In the Circum-
padane regions the Etruscan immigrants — dated, by
the general voice of history, about the twelfth cen-
tury B.C. — built their cities and cemeteries, Felsina
being the chief centre, and annexed Atria and
Spina, the maritime depots. This theory as-
sumes that the Etruscans all travelled by water and
not by land — which, to say the least, is not proven.
In the inverse case they would first occupy the
eastern and afterwards the western slopes of the
Apennines ; and thence, emboldened by strength
and security, they would overspread the surround-
ing lowlands, and become pedionomites. But
there is nothing to disprove the habit of voyaging
and of travelling at the same or at different times ;
thus, indeed, I would explain the modern theory
OLD BOLOGNA. 17
of a dozen writers, which derives the Rasenna
from the Rhaetian Alps, and the existence of the
Euganeans, a kindred tribe in the vicinity of Padua.
And, in the peculiar fanaticism of the modern
Tyrolese, I find direct survival from the ' gens ante
omnes alias dedita religionibus.'
The tower-tombs of Palmyra and the rock-tombs
of Asia Minor and Syria Proper, where the dead
lay buried along the main lines of suburban road,
were reproduced by the Etruscans in their new
Italian homes. This aesthetic and artistic system
of sepulture, which made the monuments true
' monimenta,' — an immense advance upon the days
when the corpse was interred, as by modern Africans,
in the house ; by Moslems near it, and by Christians
in the church — was borrowed, with a host of cere-
monies and superstitions, by the Romans, as the
well-known instance of the Via Appia proves :
and yet the old habit survived in the burial of babes
that had not cut their teeth under the roof-eaves
(su&grundarium), like swallows' nests. These groups
of sepulchres, which will presently be described,
enable a ' hypothetical planimetry ' to lay down, with
a tolerably sure hand, the lines and limits of Etruscan
c
1 8 THE WORKS OF MAN.
Felsina,1 the colony of Tarchon, the capital of
the twelve Federated Cities in the so-called Etruria
Nova. Evidently built upon an Umbrian site, and
smaller than its Roman successor, it did not ex-
tend, as some archaeologists have supposed, to the
southern hills. The position was the normal isth-
mus, ' mull,' or peninsula ; whose base is the Reno
River, a non ignobile flumen, rising in the nearest
1 The only names which have survived this Federation are Atria
(Pelasgic), Spina (Pelasgic), Mantua, Melpum (captured by the Boii),
Felsina or Velsina, and, perhaps, we may now add, Misa.
Cav. Zannoni, of whom more presently, quotes Manetho : ' Apud
enim Tuscos, Pyseo successit Tuscus junior annis xxxix. : huic Aucnus
annis xxv., quern secutus est Felsinus annis xxxiii.' Sil. Ital. (De Bell.
Pun. lib. viii. 601): ' Ocniprisca domus.' Servius ad ^En. (x. 198) adds :
' Hunc Ocnum alii Auletis filium, alii fratrem, qui Perusiam condidit
referunt : et ne cum fratre contenderet in agro Gallico, Felsinam, quaa
nunc Bononia dicitur, condidisse.' Pliny (iii. 19) says: ' Bononia Felsina
vocitata.' Sempronius (De Div. et Chorogr. Italice) : ' Flaminea (regio)
item a Bononia ad Rubiconem amnem ante a Felsina a principe He-
trurias missis coloniis Lamonibus.' M. Cato (De Originibus) : ' Gallia
Cispadana, olim Bianora a victore Ocno, postea Felsina dicta usque
Ravennam, nunc Gallia Aurelia, Emilia a Romanis ducibus nomen
habet. Princeps metropolis Felsina primum a rege Thusco conditur.'
Livy has (Hist, xxxiii. 37) ' Dein (consules, viz. M. Claudius Marcellus
and»L. Furius Purpureo) junctis exercitibus primum Boiorum agrum
usque ad Felsinam oppidum populantes peragraverunt. Ea urbs,
caeteraque castella et Boii fere omnes, praeter juventutem, quae prasdandi
causa in armis erat (tune in devias silvas recesserat), in deditionem
venerunt'(^- C. 556). ' Felsina ' then disappears from literature, and
the historian (lib. xxxvii. 34) speaks of Bononia as a ' colonia Latina,'
established after a Senatus Consult, by the Triumvirs, S. Valerius
Flaccus, M. Atilius Seranus and Valerius Tappus.
OLD BOLOGNA. 19
Apennines about Pistoja, and whose arms are
the Aposa affluent to the east, and the Ravona
westward. It was probably walled round, like
Etruscan cities generally ; the interior was divided
into ' insulse,' or ' regiones,' by main lines of street,
each with its own gate or gates ; and it is noticed
that the most ancient sepulchres are those nearest
the defences. Probably a considerable part was of
timber. Strabo (v. i. § 7) tells us that Ravenna,
a city of the Thessalians, given over by these
Pelasgi to the Umbrians, was composed of wooden
edifices;1 and Atria, Hat, or Hatri, which named
the Adriatic, preserves, according to the learned
Bocchi (' Importanza di Adria la Veneta '), memories
of similar constructions, the spoils of the oaks, which
in Virgil's day —
On Padus' bank . . .
Uprear their heads, and nod their crests sublime.
. ix. 680-2.
Atop of the Etruscan city lay Bononia, whose name,
revived in Bononia Gessoriacum (Boulogne), has
been erroneously derived from the Boii. These
barbarians, about B.C. 350, ravaged the Etruscan
1 The French translators understand $i>Xo7r«y»/£ SXi/, ' built wholly
on piles.'
C 2
20 THE WORKS OF MAN.
Federation of the Po, and finally bequeathed a
name to Bohemia. The Consular Via Emilia, the
Great North- Eastern, probably a successor of the
Etruscan highway, traversed the city from west to
east, as is proved by the trachytic slabs found some
three metres below the actual level ; a metalling
brought from the Euganean hills, and still showing
the wheel-rut. Bononia, larger than Felsina, was
smaller than Bologna, a hexagon, measuring about
two miles in circumference ; and the Via Emilia
still enables us to master the intricacy of the modern
city. This thoroughfare corresponded with the
Corso, which runs, roughly speaking, between the
two halves, northern and southern. Eastward the
main street radiates into four branches : the Via
Luigi Zamboni (old S. Donate) to the north-east ;
the Strade S. Vitale, Maggiore, and di S. Stefano,
the latter to the south-east ; while to the west there
are three spokes, the Strade delle Lamme and di S.
Felice, and the Via del ' Pradello.'
21
SECTION III.
PUBLIC COLLECTIONS OF ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES
AT BOLOGNA.
BEFORE proceeding to the cities and cemeteries of
this mysterious Etruscan race, it is advisable to spend
a few days amongst the museums of Bologna. The
two public are the R. Museo Archeologico dell'
Universita Bolognese, containing a collection which
in 1871 was exhibited in a house further down the
street ; now it occupies a room in the modern Univer-
sity, the old Palazzo Poggi. Here the most notice-
able article is the metal mirror, known from its
original owner as the Patera Cospiana, the 'gemma
Maffeiana/ which is described as a 'capolavoro di
glittica : ' hither also the ' Mamolo finds ' were trans-
ferred. The second — and allow me to remark, en
passant, that the sooner Bologna combines the two
collections, royal and communal, the better — is in the
old Archiginnasio, afterwards called the Scuole Pie,
from its Charity Schools, and now the Biblioteca del
22 THE WORKS OF MAN.
Comune. The frescoes and inscriptions, the court
and galleries, of this venerable edifice, which once
rang with every tongue of Europe and the nearer
East, are described by all the guide-books ; but none,
not even Cav. Gualandi, notice the collections of
1870-1. They are deposited in the Sale (iii. and iv.),
inscribed ' Scavi della Certosa,' of the Museo Civico,
which lie at the northern end of the grand cloister.
The arrangement is admirable. The walls of
Sala No. iii. are hung with large and detailed maps
and plans, illustrating the topography of the find,
which may be called the ' Certosa Collection.' The
merit of the discovery must be assigned to Cav.
Antonio Zannoni, ' Capo-Ingegnere Architetto ' of
the Municipality, who, guided by what seems archaeo-
logical instinct, began to excavate in 1869. Four
hundred tombs were opened in four years. All
the skeletons lay supine ; only six were irregularly
disposed, probably facing their homes — we find the
practice noticed in Homer, and the beatulus of Per-
sius ' in portam rigidos calces extendit.' All the
rest were oriented with their feet towards the rising
sun, as the Jews fronted Jerusalem. Thus Laertius
tells us that the Greek liturgies ordered the face to
look eastwards, and Helianus reports an old law,
ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA. 23
which directed the head to be disposed westward :
we shall presently learn that this was also an
Umbrian custom ; and that it was perpetuated by the
Romans. A happy thought of Cav. Zannoni was
bodily to transport the skeletons, adult and infantine,1
together with the remnants of coffins (arete), and
even the earth upon which they lay. Except only
the as rude, the fee of the ' griesly grim ' Ferryman,
grasped in the right hand, the funereal adjuncts
were placed on the left (north). These are Celebes,
amphorae, tazze, and unguentaria of glass or alabaster,
in fact, the multiform vases and pots for whose
names the curious reader will consult my friend and
colleague Mr. Dennis (' Cities and Cemeteries of
Western Etruria,' i., xciv., c.) ; together with can-
delabra, dice, and pebbles, the latter possibly
counters for play. The marriage-ring still clings to
the fleshless annular of the left hand : here is the
old superstition (Isidore) which made a vein run
from it to the heart, and which survives throughout
modern Europe. It is often of iron,2 the servile
1 They are mostly feminine ; seven are adults and five are children.
2 The iron ring of the ' stern old Romans ' is still found amongst
the Sikhs ; and the strictest Moslems will not wear gold. Whilst the
Aryans generally call the ' fourth finger ' of the Book of Common
Prayer (vulgarly the third finger) ' annularis,' in Illyrian perstenjak,
24 THE WORKS OF MAN.
metal amongst the later Romans, who denoted
nobility by gold, and the plebeian by silver. The
more precious rings were rare at the Certosa. Prof.
Calori, ' Delia Stirpe che ha populata 1' antica necro-
poli alia Certosa di Bologna' (Bologna : 1873. Plate
ix.), a most valuable study kindly given to me by the
author, figures two of these skeletons : I shall offer
further remarks upon the collection when we visit
the spot.
A marking feature of this admirable trouvaille
is the number of ciste in bronze a cordoni; we
have here fourteen, whereas in 1871 Etruria
Circumpadana had yielded only seven (' Lettera
dell' Ing. Ant. Zannoni al Sig. Conte Comm.
Gian Carlo Conestabile.' Torino : Stamperia Reale,
Oct. 1 5th, 1873). All are of the same age, and
undoubtedly denote a splendid epoch. The cylin-
ders are two plates of thin bronze, flat bands alter-
nating with cords repousse-worked. The cover is
often a flat stone, and the lower band is sometimes
ornamented with leaves ; the horizontal rings num-
the Turanians, according to my learned friend Prof. Hunfalvy, of Pesth,
term it the ' finger without a name.' This is found in Chinese (Works of
Mencius), in Japanese, and in the Dravidian tongues ; for instance, in
Tamil, Telugu, and Canarese, it appears as andmika, ' anonymous,'
from the Sanskrit, ndma. The ' philological puzzle ' was lately dis-
cussed in the columns of the Pall Mall.
ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA. 25
ber fourteen or fifteen, and the bottom is also
composed of concentric circles. Feet are present
in some specimens, absent in others. The total
height averages 0^33 metre (=i foot 0*99 inch),
and the diameter 0*29 metre (= 11*42 inches) to
o-4O metre (=i foot 375 inches). The ornaments
are mostly leaf-like borderings, near the upper edge ;
BRONZE CISTA, WITH STONE COVER.
winged masks at the junction of the ansez-, and,
on each of the three feet, appears in one specimen,
a satyr, demi-couchant, and holding a wine-skin and
a cup.
These artistic articles followed the rude big-
bellied urn of terra cotta, which contained the ashes
26 THE WORKS OF MAN.
of the dead,1 even as the earthen tazza became the
bronze cup. It has been suggested that during the
owner's life they served for pixides or dressing-
cases ; and this is supported by the presence of the
ans&, which in one specimen represent a bull and a
ram. The cysts of Middle Etruria, and especially
those of Praeneste, were buried as ornaments : they
contained articles of toilette, sponges, unguentaria
and unguents, the little rouge-box, the white ceruse,
&c. The Bolognese cysts are said to have been
the produce of local art and industry ; yet a precisely
similar article, with handles and without feet, was
found at Granholz, near Bern, and is exhibited at the
Stadt Bibliotek of the Swiss capital. MM. Cave-
doni and Gozzadini infer from their simplicity that
they are more ancient than those of the Central Fed-
eration and of Latium, which cannot date beyond
the first half of the third century B.C. : the same
may be said of the bronze disks which served as
mirrors. I would further notice the resemblance of
shape with the kilindi or bark cylinder, in which
the Mnyamwezi stores and transports his valuables.
Another characteristic of this collection is the
1 At the Certosa at least one cyst was found not to contain human
bones.
ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA. 27
huge and highly ornamented stela or cippus, the pro-
totype of the humble headstone in the churchyards
of our villages : perhaps, also, the meta, or goal-
FIBUL^E FROM VILLANOVA (all half size).
a, Fibula with amber in setting, b, Amber beads, c, Glass beads, blue ground,
yellow enamel.
The bronze of these fibula showed —
Copper 84*26
Tin 15-74
like shape, symbolised the end of man's exiguum
curriculum. From the learned studies of the late
28 THE WORKS OF MAN.
Count Giovanni da Schio, of Vicenza (' Sulle Iscri-
zioni ed altri monumenti Reto-Euganei.' Padova :
Angelo Sicca, 1853), of which I owe a copy to the
courtesy of his two sons, Counts Almerico and Al-
vise, we learn that the Euganeans used the obelisk-
shaped gravestone, whose legend usually began with
EJ^O (kic, heic ?). Thirty tombstones were found, a
monumental series unique in size and ornamenta-
tion ; and the largest and most remarkable of these
products of national art is thus described by Count
G. C. Conestabile ('Congres,' p. 271) : 'The height,
not including the base is about 2'io metres (=6 feet
10*68 inches) ; the breadth 1*26 metre (=4 feet
1*60 inch) and the thickness 0*30 metre (=11*81
inches). The bas-reliefs, raised hardly half-a-centi-
metre (=0*197 inch), are divided into four com-
partments to the front and three behind. Beginning
at the top, a hippocampus faces a Nereid holding
a fish : in the second zone the defunct, umbrella
in hand, rides a biga behind the auriga ; a winged
figure soars above him, and before the horses
marches a helmeted form, mantled about the reins,
with a torch in the right and a rudder (oar) in the
left hand. The third band contains two pugilists,
separated by a little tibicen, and flanked by the
ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA. 29
agonothetes (director of games), and a youth ; the
latter holds an unguentarium and another utensil for
the comfort of the combatants. In the lowest com-
partment a throned figure is approached by a person-
age accompanying a car, and by others with a basket
and various offerings — apparently it is the Infernal
Deity receiving the defunct and his suite. The
reverse contains fewer figures : a feminine body,
ending in a double serpent's tail, hurls a rock ; a
charioteer urges his biga at speed, and in the lowest
a warrior, with lance and shield, faces a cloaked form.
These designs are separated, and mixed with orna-
ments of leaves, ivy stems, and waving lines.'
Count Conestabile, who would distribute the
dates of the several kinds of stela between the
third and the fifth or even the sixth century of
Rome, followed by Cav. Zannoni (loc. cit. p. 27), pro-
poses a four-fold division of the thirty tomb-stones.
1. Rough water-rolled natural blocks, still found
in the Reno bed ; menisci, lenticular, cylindrical,
ovoid, or spheroidal. The diameter ranges to
077 metre (=30*35 inches).
2. Long-ovoid and cylindrical stelae, with plain
faces, and sides converging below like termini,
artificially smoothed and flattened ; in fact, the
30 THE WORKS OF MAN.
menisci civilised, The bases were left, as usual,
unworked for planting in the ground, and one shows
the letters IAN or NAI.
3. The sculptured stela of the same shape, but
especially the horse-shoe. Of these splendid speci-
mens the tallest is 1*45 metre (=4 feet 9x38 inches)
by o'8o ( = 2 feet 7*50 inches) broad ; a segment of a
circle above, with the sides inclining inwards or de-
scending vertically. It is carved on one, perhaps on
both faces ; and here and there it preserves traces of
red paint, with which, possibly, the name was inscribed
(M. Hirschfeld). The vine and the ivy, both sacred
to Bacchus,1 meander over the perimeter, enclosing,
as has been shown, a variety of figures ; and certainly
the most remarkable, when we remember how lately
the umbrella found its way into England, are the
personages holding it with the right hand — a frequent
rilievo amongst Etruscans. The others, still repre-
senting funereal usages, are a panoplied warrior, with
lance at rest ; a battle-scene between a horseman
1 Hence the Latin saw: 'Vino vendibili suspensa hedera non opus
est ' (' Good wine needs no bush ') ; and the ivy-tuft still hangs over the
(Enopolium and the Thermopolium of I stria. It is not difficult to de-
tect the origin of the practice in the beauty of the plant upon the
borders of the Mediterranean : the rich purple clusters exactly re-
semble the currant-grape of the Peloponnesus, and the perfume of the
finely-veined leaf is still supposed to dissipate the fumes of wine.
ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA. 31
and a footman ; a feminine face and bust ending, not
in a fish, but in a double snake ; the winged Genius,
with a serpent in either hand ; the biga and triga ;
horse-races, and chariot-races ; the barded steed ;
the altar and basket ; the bark (Baris ?), with mast
and sail ; Charon, holding the oar in the left hand ;
sports with balls and lances ; the star ; the funereal
owl, the hippocampus, also a favourite ; the olive,
the myrtle, and the pomegranate ; and various other
herbs, flowers, lotus (?), and fruits. The signs of
archaism are the shallowness of relief; heavy pro-
portions ; angular movements in the figures ; im-
perfect forms, and indistinctness of details. In later
times the sculptor's hand became freer, his tool
worked with greater breadth, vivacity, and truth ;
and, finally, he arrived at individualism.
4. Spheres and spheroid stones, worked and pro-
longed in the rough where the parallelopipedon
base was intended for planting in the ground — a
form very rare in Etruria Proper, the central region
between the Campanian and the Circumpadan.
Two globes of remarkable size are in this museum ;
perhaps they symbolised the head, neck, and
shoulders which lay below. A smaller ball, carved
with a little figure, was unearthed, as will after-
32 THE WORKS OF MAN.
wards appear, at Marzabotto ; and another, cut only
on one side, was taken from the Torricelli tombs.
The articles of pottery, not including fragments,
reach the goodly total of 810. These interesting
remains of home life were found with the skeletons,
as well as with the ashes, and they are divided by
Cav. Zannoni into four kinds : —
1. The rude brown, black, and ash-coloured,
numbering 200.
2. The plain red (160).
3. The plain varnished black (150).
4. The painted and figured (300).
The latter again are either red figures on black
fields with violet accessories, or black on red with
violet and white, for flesh and tools. The former
belonged generally to the tombs, the latter to the
pyres. More than 50 bear inscribed marks. The
collector's chief enemy, both in pottery and in
bronze, is the general custom of breaking, sometimes
with great violence, the objects which accompany
the defunct : thus the ghost or ' material soul ' of a
man ate the Manitou, spirit or ghost of food, out
of the phantasm or ghost of a pot. So Propertius
(iv. 7> 33):—
Hoc etiam grave erat, nulla mercede hyacinthum
Injicere, et fracto busta piare cado.
ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA. 33
Amongst modern Fetishists it is not held loyal
to take anything from the person of the dead, and
some advanced tribes, such as the people of the
Old Calabar River, allow houses, canoes, furniture,
weapons, boxes, and moveable wealth to fall to
pieces ; whilst others break them up and form a kind
of monument. It is here easy to see the connec-
tion with sacrifice, human and bestial.
Specimens of the CBS signatum were also found.
According to Pliny (xxxiii. 13) it was used in the
days of Servius Tullus — king or dynasty — but we
know from him (xxxiv. 13) that Numa had in-
stituted cerarii, or coppersmiths. The ces rude,
whose funereo-religious use continued to Imperial
ages, has four several shapes 1 at Villanova, the
Certosa, and Marzabotto ; and these, again, vary not
only in the amount of alloy, but in the nature of
the metal. Some have tin and zinc with lead ;
others only the last.
i. The rude inform or scoriform mass, ash-
coloured, and friable under the hammer, has 96*592
per cent, of copper; lead, 2-142; and the rest is
impure matter without zinc or tin.
1 The (zs grave appeared only in the fourth century of Rome.
D
34 THE WORKS OF MAN.
2. The cylindrical or virgated, with Jongitudinal
striae, 9177 ; tin, 8*22 \ of lead a trace, and no zinc.
3. The flat, or laminated like the fragment of
an ingot, has only 80*679; lead, 17-886; and tin,
i'435-
4. The discoid, more or less ovoidal, -possibly the
oboles of Plutarch (Vit. Nttmtz), whence came the
obolus. One disk (diam. 0*03 metre=i°i8 inch)
engraved with three parallel lines, may be an ces
signatiim (?).
The following is the late Prof. Sgarzi's analysis of
the &s rude of Villanova (i), and of the stips votiva
of Vicarello (2), compared with the ess rude of Mar-
zabotto (3) (Prof. Missaglia) : —
I. 2.
Copper . . 937°) Copper . . 95-20)
\ 100-00 _. ' „ h 100-00
Tin . . 06-30] Tin . . 04-80)
3-
Copper . . 64-40 and 54-6 1 1
Lead . . . 32-53 „ 38-00 h = 100-00
Accidental elements (trace) J
It will be seen that the bronze of Vicarello is the
ruder material, and probably more ancient, as it con-
tains the smallest quantity of alloy. Lead and tin
in increased proportions appear at the Certosa, and
even more at Marzabotto. That of Vicarello has
the zinc alloy of the Romans. And, whilst all the
ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA. 35
reputed bronzes found outside Italy, as the vase in
the museum of Bern, contain lead, here in some it
is present, and absent from others. Cav. Zannoni
(p. 46) suggests that the shapes are not accidental,
but arbitrary, to show the different monetary value,
which would vary with the quantity and the quality
of alloy.
The industry of the stone age is represented
by arrow-heads (elf-shots), axes (coins de foudre} ; 1
knives or scrapers, flakes artificially struck from the
core ; fictile disks in great numbers — some of the
latter may have been used for the dress weights,
which will presently be described. In this part of
the collection there is nothing to notice. The bronze
weapons are fragments of a large round clypeus,
with gilt and engraved handle ; a galea ; three
knives, like those of Caserta and Matray in Rhsetia,2
1 These glossopetrce or betuli, the ceraunicz similes securibus of
Pliny; the ceraunicz gemma of other writers, are so called in the Chan-
nel Islands and elsewhere. The Calabrese believe that these cuogni
di trtioni are the bolt itself (ceraunites, not anna heroum) : they strike
1 8 canne(each 2'2i metres) deep, and they mount I canna per annum,
when they reach the surface, and form most valuable talismans against
thunder. They are proved by being hung over the fire with a blue
thread, which must not burn. With this boorish superstition the axe
of the savage has been worn on the warrior's helm and on the royal
diadem. ,
2 At Matray, also written Matrai, a village on the northern slope
of the Brenner Mountain in the Tyrol, was found in 1845 the part of
D 2
36 THE WORKS OF MAN.
whence Freret and Heyne, Niebuhr, and Mommsen
would derive the original Etruscans ; one small
and two long narrow cuspides (lance-heads) ; a long,
heavy iron cutter, found in the grasp of a young
and vigorous male skeleton, bore signs of a wooden
scabbard, showing that the Etruscans were wiser in
this matter than we are.
Amongst the unexplained articles are cylinders,
shaped like dumb-bells, but ending in menisci, not in
THE DUMB-BELLS.
spheres, made of fine black clay, about o m. 8 cent.
( = 275 inches long), oftener plain, and sometimes
a procession in relief, illustrated by the late Count Giovanni da Schio,
to which allusion will presently be made. The rude art is held to
confirm the testimony of Livy (v. 33), of Pliny (iii. 24), and of Justin
(xx. 5), that Rhastia was conquered by and occupied by the Etruscans
when driven by the Gauls from their Padan settlements. Evidently
it may prove the reverse, and an emigration from north to south is
more credible than a movement vice versd.
ETRlfSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA. 37
ornamented at both ends with five circles and the
mystic die. Of these as many as twenty, all un-
broken, were found in the wealthiest tombs ; and
Villanova yielded seventy-four. The 'Grotto of Isis'
(necropolis of Volci) has supplied similar articles ;
and Visconti figures (Mus. P. Cl. ii. pi. 17, 18) what
appear to be the same things in the hands of two
Egyptian statues. He suggests, first, that they
were emblems of the Agathodsemon ; secondly, that
they were pJialli. Others suppose them to have been
used in worshipping the Lampsacan god, and they
offer a superficial resemblance to certain emblems
well known in India. They are always found in
pairs, but no use for them has yet been defined.
In the Isis-grotto of Vulci, however, we see similar
shapes used by men jumping ; and the second table
of Count Schio's learned study represents two nude
pugilists contending with (leaden ?) halteres or
alteres l in their hands. I reminded Count Gozza-
dini of his cousin's publication. He replied, however,
that the resemblance could not be accepted, as
many of the clay cylinders were only 3 centimetres
(= i 'i 8 inch) long. But, these simulacra might, as
was the custom with the human figure, with weapons,
1 Quid pereunt stulto fortes altere lacerti ? (Martial, xiv. 44).
38 THE WORKS OF MAN.
and with other articles, have been reduced imita-
tions for the purpose of sepulture. The Lilliputian
agricultural implements of bronze in Sardinia, to
mention no other place, are supposed to be symbols
or religious emblems (Congres, p. 27).
Bronzes are numerous in the Archiginnasio ; but
of the 1 3 mirrors, of which one is white metal, none
are inscribed or figured. Besides situlce, there are
cenochoes (12), cullenders (n), simpiili (20), and
candelabra (30) : many show the forms familiar to
the peasant's cottage in the present day. Some
of the iron coffin-rails have bronze heads, like those
found at Salona. Professors Pucinotti and Casali
detected little zinc in bits of fused and worked
bronze of a candelabrum from Villanova (No. i),
the Certosa (2), and Marzabotto (3) : —
i.
2.
Copper
• 9l'll\
Copper .
86-45)
Tin .
v — nn-88
Lead
6-85
Iron, trace
h -99 55
Tin
670,
Zinc, „
J
3-
Copper
• 95 '93)
Tin .
. 04-07 L = lOO'OO
Iron, trace
J
The beaten bronze from Villanova (i), the
Certosa (2), and Marzabotto (3), gave the following
results : —
ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA, 39
I. 2.
Copper . 94-4 > Copper . 83754)
Tin . . 05*1 Tin . . 16-246)
Iron, trace
Zinc, „
3-
Copper 9I>32]
Tin o8'68 r = loo-oo
Zinc, trace )
The bone dice were numerous and of two
kinds, cubes (xvfi°<;) and oblongs, the latter bear-
ing the ' canis,' (xuwv) or ' canicula,' the Greek
N.OVO.S or "vy (imio], and one ace at one short
end, and the deuce at the other.1 In both the
concentric circlets varied from one to three, and
were coloured red or blue. The disposition of
the ' pips ' also completely distinguishes them from
the Roman dice, according to Cav. Zannoni, who
has forwarded his description to the eminent
Etruscologue, Prof. Ariodante Fabretti, for publi-
cation in the continuation of his great work. Thus
the correspondence from Twickenham, concerning
1 Lord Crawford (Athenceum, April n, 1874) remembering the
' damnosa canicula,' and the ' damnati canes ' — the damned dogs — of
the poets, hence derives the ' dog-luck of our modern slang speech.'
This is going deep for a proverbial saying which lies on the surface.
We might as well refer ' son of a doggess' to the offspring of Hecuba.
And if unto, the ace, is so condemned, how can we believe it to repre-
sent Sirius, the Canicula, sacred to Mercury or Hermes, the god of
good luck ?
40 THE WORKS OF MAN.
the scheme of the marks, which appeared in the
' Athenseum ' (July 1874), is, to speak mildly, pre-
mature, and the ' hypothesis ' about Sig. Campanari
uncalled for. I expect great things from a scien-
tific illustration of these ' Lydian implements.'
One of the situlcz contained a light ligneous
matter, very porous and friable. Treated by Prof.
Adolfo Casali, it proved insoluble in water ; concen-
trated alcohol dissolved about one-sixth, and the
dissolution strongly troubled water, which left when
evaporated an orange-black sediment. The latter,
exposed to fire, burnt with a fuliginous flame —
briefly, it appeared to a mixture of olibanum and
storax, serving like the incense still used in our
churches.
The amount of toilette articles was immense in
variety, if not in number ; of bronze fibula 200
articles, of silver 120 (two large and fine), and
of gold 2. They are, as usual, complicated and
multiform, and three had enamelled glass beads on
the needle. There were 150 bronze buttons ; 10
annilke; huge pins for the use of the ornatrix
(coiffeuse)', 7 gold rings; 10 silver, and 3 iron;
with sundry of paste, bone, and amber. The pen-
deloques are 20 of glass, mostly enamelled, and
ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA. 41
50 of brown pottery. The earrings are of amber,
iron, silver, and gold (7 pairs and 3 odd of the
latter) : some weigh four-tenths of an ounce (13
grammes = 200^60 grains). The minute balls of
gold, which the Etruscans soldered with a mar-
vellous art, the elegant filigrane and granulated
work, are the despair even of the famous Castellani.
One is a serpent biting its own tail, and another a
leonine head. The pixis or dressing-case, rivetted
with plates of bone, stands on four feet, and
contains little cylinders of the same material. The
aryballa (perfume-holders) and unguentaria of
pottery, alabaster, and glass, coloured and en-
amelled, still contain rouge, which analysis proves
to be colcothar or crocus martis (oxide of iron),
locally called rosso Inglese or rossetto di Parigi.
The mirrors, all plain, number 13, including one
of white metal, probably copper and tin ; the front
disk is slightly concave, and none are of stone :
1 2 others are of bronze. The necklaces are chiefly
of glass, and of amber, concerning which long dis-
cussions took place at the Congress of Bologna.
The general opinion was that this semi-mineralized
gum came from the Baltic, and denoted an ancient
connection with the Phoenicians. One necklace had,
42 THE WORKS OF MAN.
by way of pendant, a silex arrow-head, probably
a charm against the fiery tongue with which God
spoke to man — a superstition far from extinct
amongst the highly-civilised, even in this day, when
the philosopher makes thunder and lightning in his
cabinet.
The gem of the collection is the splendid vase
(Sala No. iii.), which contained burnt bones, ashes,
and fragments of tissue ; it is a cone, truncated
below, about a foot high ; or, more exactly, 0*32
metres (=i foot O'6o), and in diameter a maximum
of 0*29 ( = 12*42 inches), and a minimum of 0*13
(= 5*12 inches). The archaic aspect, the variety
of subjects, the general composition, and the mar-
vellous execution of this find demand a full notice.
The bas-reliefs, repousse and chiselled work, cover-
ing the bulge, are divided into four horizontal
zones, which does not, however, exclude the unity
of the design — a varied and pompous procession,
and the ceremonies of a great religious act ending
in a feast.
The first, or highest, zone shows the proces-
sion. Two horsemen and thirteen footmen, all with
couched lances, marching from right to left ; their
shields are four oval, five long-oval, and the rest
ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA. 43
circular (clypei] ; and of their helms five are hemi-
spheres, with the apex which we still see in the
German pickelhaub, while the rest have depending
manes. A bird hovers over the horsemen, and four
bell-men, with the bronze tintinnabula so frequently
found in Central Etruria, bring up the rear of this
processional section.
The second band, the preparation for sacrificing
a bull and a ram, shows the advance, this time from
left to right, of the victimarii and the ministri with
the animals and the sacred utensils, followed by
three canephorce, vases on heads. Two of the
ministri support a pole or brancard, from which
hangs a situla (pail with handles) ; a third has
charge of a huge ox, over whose head floats a bird
like Progne ; whilst a victimary drags by the horns
a goat, sacred to Mars.1 Two men escort a pair
of mules, whilst others carry different articles, such
as knives, vases, baskets (vannus mysticus ?), and
loads of wood. There are three quaint figures in
long robes (toga campestres ? without tunics ?),2
and the gigantic pilei of the Spanish cardinals,
whom Mgr. de Me"rode described as coming to the
1 ' Hircum Marti victimant' (Apuleius, lib. vii.).
2 ' Primo sine tunica toga sola amicta fuerunt ' (A. Gellius).
44 THE WORKS OF MAN.
QEcumenical Council in their canoes ; this part of
the composition ends with a big dog.
The third zone, which resumes the direction of
the first, displays the agricultural pursuits preced-
ing the preparations for the feast : a calf carried
on the shoulders of two slaves ; a pig drawn by a
third, and others following. In the centre of the
groups, acting the point de mire, appears the idea
which inspires the whole. At one end of a couch
(biclinium or anaclynteris], whose arms are adorned
with griffins' heads, sits a lyre-player, at the other a
performer on the syrinx, each backed by a small
boy in the nude. They wear the Img&pileus before
alluded to ; and between them hangs another sitnla.
Rural episodes on the right — hare-hunting and bird-
netting with the varra, and on the left a peasant
carrying his primitive plough and driving his steers,
finish both ends of this third zone. Finally, the
fourth or lowest is filled with fantastic animals —
five-winged chimseras, two quadrupeds, a stag, and
so forth.
' It would be impossible/ says Professor Count
J. Conestabile,1 whose account differs in many points
1 Cav. Zannoni also looks upon it as representing not a funeral but
a procession; a ' Laudesis' (Dionysius, ii., p. 129) ; a Panathenaeum
ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA. 45
from that of Cav. Zannoni (Scavi della Certosa, page
1 2) x 'to describe the multitudinous details of the
figures and articles upon this admirable composition ;
the marvellous care ; the finesse of execution in the
ornamentation of the armour, the tunics, and the
mantles ; and the minute exactness with which the
costumes are represented. Whilst the animals are
admirably drawn, the human beings show, in the
highest degree, an archaic, or rather, artistically
speaking, an infantine, type, in the prognathism, the
puffy cheeks, and the general stiffness of the move-
ments ; in the profiled position ; in the arrangement
of the dress, and in the absence of distinction be-
tween the latter and the forms which it covers. If
this archaism be really what it appears, original and
(Aristoph. Nub. v. 984), a Saltatio (Livy, i. xx), or an Armilustrum
(Plaut. Pseud, iii. 112).
1 '" Sur les De"couvertes de la Certosa de Bologne" (pp. 272-274)
in the Compte Rendu of the Congres Internationale k Bologne, 1821.'
The valuable volume printed by Fava and Garagnani at Bologna, 1873,
is now not to be bought there. I owe my copy to the kindness of my
excellent friend Prof. Gian Giuseppe Cavaliere Bianconi, of Bologna,
whose name in the world of letters is so well known. He was kind
enough to give me copies of his three studies (Bologna, 1862, 1868,
1874) on Marco Polo and the Rukh-bird (Degli Scritti di Marco Polo
e delF Uccello Rue, <&•»<:.), which supply much interesting matter con-
cerning the original edition of the great traveller. In his memoir en-
titled Esperienze intorno alia Flessibilita del Ghiaccio (Bologna, 1871),
he proves by the experiment that the flexibility of ice, as supported by-
Forbes, and its torsionability, do not depend upon ' regelation.'
46 THE WORKS OF MAN.
not imitated, the vase may date from the third cen-
tury of Rome (B.C. 450), a period which we obtain
by comparison with other authentic antiquities, such
as the fragments of the Etruscan car in the museum
of Perugia, where the human figure is represented
with more cunning. Thus this rare vase would be
not only the most ancient of the artistic finds from
the Bologna necropolis, but would antedate, as a
witness to the art and industry of the people,
everything that has been discovered in Northern
Etruria.' The others with which it is compared
are the bronze vase with burnt bones from Valdi-
chiana ; another from Peccioli, and the silver gilt
situla of Chiusi.
I rejoice to add, that this unique situla will be
figured in facsimile by Cav. Zannoni in his forth-
coming volume, 'Gli Scavi della Certosa di Bologna.'
The work, which will illustrate the Circumpadan
Federation, so rich in olden civilisation, as ably
as the central and Campanian regions have been
treated by a host of writers, is to be concluded in
twenty-five issues, of which the first may be expected
daily (March i, 1875) ; the total will be 300 pages of
royal folio, with 150 tables and figures. The cost
to the author can hardly be less than 20,000 francs.
ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA, 47
He is aided to a certain extent by the Municipality ;
but the learned public will not, I hope, allow his five
years of incessant labour, at hours snatched from
official work, to go unrewarded.
A large hall and its offset immediately adjoin
on the west the two Etruscan Salle. The floor is
covered, as well as the tables, with piles of remains
taken from hut and tomb. In due time they will
be thrown open to the world, classed by the in-
defatigable Cavaliere. Meanwhile, a line from the
courteous municipal authorities admits the student.
He will find much that merits his attention, such
as the pin-heads of glass enamelled with various
metals ; gold-leaf artistically beaten upon baser
metal ; a vast variety of articles in bronze and clay ;
and, finally, boars' tusks, perhaps used for amulets,
the custom of the modern Moslem.
Of the collection of Crania, under charge of the
celebrated Professor Calori, I propose to speak in a
future page.
48 THE WORKS OF MAN.
SECTION IV.
PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, ESPECIALLY THE
VILLANOVA.
THE Aria family, who will be noticed at Marzabotto,
have collected for two generations the Etruscan
antiquities found upon their property. But the most
interesting, not only for its antiquity, but also be-
cause it has been described with so much learning
and detail,1 is from Villanova, the property of Count
Gozzadini. The village lies ' about eight kilometres
E.S.E. of Bologna,' in the parish of Santa Maria
di Casella, upon the banks of the I dice fiurnara, of
old a favourite site for tombs. The place, a mere
' metairie,' was long known to the peasantry as the
1 The first essay is entitled Di tin Sepolcreto Etrusco scoperto
presso Bologna, &c. (Bologna, Soc. tip. Bologn. 1855 — a quarto with
8 plates). The second is a quarto with one plate: Intorno ad altre
settantuna tombe, &c. (Bologna, tip. all' Ancora, 1856) ; and the last is
La Ntcropole de Villanova (Bologna : Fava et Garagnani, 1870).
This learned volume was given to me by the author, and I owe the
copies of its illustrations to the kindness of Mr. Micklewright, of
Trieste. The conversion of metres into English figures is the work
of Mr. E. W. Brocks, British Vice-Consul, Trieste.
PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. 49
' Camposanto,' from the large bronze rings turned
up by their ploughs. Circumstances, which will
presently be alluded to, induce me to hold that the
so-called cemetery was part of a town, but there
are now no means of discussing the question —
indeed, in these days the stranger will not visit
the site, all the diggings having been filled up.
On the other hand, the Count's cabinet is ad-
mirably arranged ; and this unique collection, which
may date from more than 3,000 years ago, is hos-
pitably shown to the traveller. The first find, a
' pot ' full of bones and ashes, was in May 1853, and
works were carried on regularly for two years, care-
fully superintended by the owner, aicfa, as he says,
by the Countess.
The area of excavation was an oblong, 74 metres
east and west (= 242*9 ft), by 27 (= 387 ft.) north
and south ; or 1,998 square metres (= 21,507 sq. ft).
Of the tombs, some had been destroyed by the ditch-
diggers, but a total of 193 were found unopened, in
the same state as left after the ' aeternum vale ! '
Six, of the same material as, but of different and finer
form than, the rest, and separated, as if for the dig-
nity of a higher race, by a clear space, yielded pecu-
E
50 THE WORKS OF MAN.
liar articles, conjectured to denote an especial caste.
The others were divided from one another by little
more than a metre, but on the western edge, and cir-
cling towards the south, this interval increased and
distances became irregular. Here was found a conical
stone, about one foot broad at the base and nearly
two feet high, rising above the tombs : possibly,
it represented the Termes which consecrated the
limits. The depth varied from 0*30 metre (=ii'8i
inches) to i'4O metre ( = 4 ft. 7 inches) below the
actual surface. Fourteen skeletons, with crania
mostly brachycephalic, lay at length supine ; with
the feet turned eastward ; with the hands crossed
over the pelvis after the fashion of the ancient
Egyptians, and, as usual, with all the funereal
objects disposed on the left side, except the coin,
which was grasped in the right hand. Some few
were bent, like the mummies of Peru and the Brazil.
The sepulchres represent four distinct shapes, in
the following proportions : —
1. Those built with pebbles and kistvaens (slabs of grit) . 28
2. „ „ pebbles only 21
3. „ „ kistvaens only 21
4. „ without kistvaens or pebbles . . .123
Total 193
On the walls of the collection-apartment are
PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. 51
drawings and illustrations of the first and most
interesting class of tombs, nearly of the natural size.
The following is a reduction.
PEBBLE-TOMBS AT VILLANOVA.
They were originally subtumular or subterra-
nean, like all the sepulchres of the primitive Ita-
lians : the idea of sinking the sepulchre probably
was that the dead polluted the face of earth, sun,
and air, and should be relegated to the hypogaea
E 2
52 THE WORKS OF MAN.
belonging to the infernal gods and manes. The
barrow, which consisted of the soil thrown up in
excavation, showed, on removal, rough slabs of plio-
cene grit or sandstone from the Apennines, over-
lying and projecting beyond the cylinders or quasi-
cylinders of water-rolled stones, built wholly without
mortar. Four were parallelograms of similar peb-
bles, measuring 2^69 metres ( = 8 feet 10 inches) each
way ; the walls rose perpendicularly to i "40 metre
(=4 feet 7 inches) ; and the top was not horizontal,
but sloped obliquely, with a depression of 076
metre (=2 feet 6 inches) to a central line of
pebbles ; they also contained many bronzes and
broken pottery. The cylinders varied in height from
076 metre to 1*50 metre (=4 feet n inches);
the maximum diameter was 1*42 metre (=4 feet
8 inches) ; and the lateral walls, composed of either
single or double strata of pebbles, averaged a metre.
In some of them the funereal objects were stored
without separation, others contained quadrangular
kistvaens of six unworked slabs, four uprights,
covered by a lid slightly concave at the top, and
projecting on all sides. The flooring was either a
flag or pebbles. The kistvaen also existed without
the pebbles. Finally, of 193 in this sepolcreto, 179
PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. 53
contained cremated, mixed up with 14 intact, skele-
tons. This proportion (100 : 7*82) is rather Greek
than Roman, and we find the system modified at the
Certosa and the Marzabotto cemeteries. The former,
out of 365, show 115 of adustion to 250 of inhuma-
tion (46 pyres to 100 tombs) ; and at the latter, again,
the cremated were in excess. Here, then, we have
a knotty point for study. Prof. Conestabile (' Revue
Arch.,' October 1874, p. 253) makes the prehistoric
peoples of Italy during the bronze age favour crema-
tion, not only for hygienic purposes, but as a kind of
sacrifice, and the Etruscans, during their national
existence, to prefer inhumation. De Jorio, an ex-
perienced excavator (' Metodo per rinvenire e fru-
gare i sepolcri,' etc., p. 154), tells us that the Hel-
lenes of Magna Graecia burnt ten for one inhumed,
and the Romans buried nine to one burnt. This,
however, is a subject which begins with Homer, and
its intricacy forbids all discussion.
Inside of each kistvaen was found one large
single-handed urna, cinerarium, or ossuarium (oo-ro-
615x73 or oo-ToSo^sTov) ; some few bore signs of a second
handle, which had been removed. I cannot but
regard this almost universal custom of confining the
dead to ceramic vases as an attempt to restore them
54 THE WORKS OF MAN.
to the womb. All save three had the same shape,
probably characteristic of, and made purposely for,
the tomb ; mostly they were black, and they varied
in ornament and dimensions. The position ranged
between vertical (67), quite horizontal (44), and
inclined at an angle of 45° (17); this was inten-
tional, as pebbles were placed for supports. They
contained nothing but bones, veritable ' relics ; '
whereas the Romans and other races stored both
bones and ashes in the urna. The remains, which
were not quite calcined, showing that the furnace
had consumed about two-thirds of the skeleton,
formed a thin layer of some four inches. They
were chiefly carbonised skull-bones, fragments of
vertebrae, diaphyses of the longer limbs, and but few
teeth ; although Pliny (N. H. vii. 15) assures us that
these bones are the only part of the body which
resist the action of fire, and are not consumed with
the rest. As animal victims were also thrown
upon the pyre, a bit of equine rib was found in
one ossuary. Each receptacle was covered with
a concavo-convex clay disk, or with a large, deep,
single-handled cup, not purposely made. These lids
appeared to be tazze and patera, possibly used for
funereal libations, and for the aspersions of wine with
PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. 55
which the pyre-embers were extinguished.1 The
urns were planted about O'io metre (=4 inches) in
the nigra favilla, a stratum of ashes which averaged
0*95 metre (=3 feet i inch) ; it yielded no large
fragments of charcoal, and only a few bone-splints
which had escaped the pious ' ossilegium.' Here
were gathered the * munera ' offered to the ghost ;
bronze and iron, glass and amber, bone and clay ;
together with the remnants of the grave-clothes ; of
the rent raiment of friends, and bones of various
beasts, the offals of the silicernium, which the
Romans called obba. The shells of two eggs2 were
found ; one near the ossuary, the other in a cup.
Each receptacle was always girt by accessory pots,
possibly those used at the supper. In the kistvaens
they rarely exceeded eight ; but they were more
1 Virgil says (JEn. vi. 227) : ' Relliquias vino et bibulam lavere favil-
lam,' and Numa forbade wine to be used where water would suffice.
The relations, after circumambulating the pyre with naked feet and un-
girt waists, extinguished the fire, and the women nearest of kin gathered
the bones bit by bit, sprinkled them with milk, wine, and balm, shook
them in a linen cloth, and stored them in the ossuary.
2 Count Gozzadini quotes : —
' Sed tibi dimidio constrictus cammarus ovo
Ponitur, exigua feralis coena patella.' — Juv. v. 84.
' nisi centum lustraverit ovis.' — Ibid. vi. 517.
and Ovid (Ars. Am. ii. 329) : —
' Et veniat, quas lustret anus lectumque, locumque :
Praeferat et tremula sulphur et ova manu.'
56 THE WORKS OF MAN.
numerous in those tombs which were composed of
pebbles and of earth. The richest showed a circular
heap of pottery, about 0*38 metre (= i foot 3
inches) high, by 1*50 metre (=4 feet n inches)
broad, and some numbering forty distinguishable
items. They had been 'entasses comme dans un
panier,' as Jorio said of the Magna Grsecian sepul-
chres (p. 154).
Of the ceramic remains at Villanova, Count
Gozzadini (' Di un Sepolcreto,' etc., tables ii. iii. and
iv.) gives 65 various designs, some of them wheel-
worked, and not a few elegantly turned, but all
wanting paint, and confirming the theory that the
Grecian art, imported with artificers by Demaratus
of Corinth,1 was with the Etruscans an affair of
imitation. The two great divisions are the black
and the red ; but it is still doubtful whether the
former arises from the quality of the clay or from
the burning-process. The inside shows a paler line
of natural colour, and the fragments heated in the
furnace become ruddy. On the other hand, the
1 Circa B.C. 657. The well-known painted jars are most common
in Central Etruria, especially to the maritime cities and certain impor-
tant points like Clusium (Chiusi), where they were first imported.
Neither the port of Adria nor the land-route supplied the Eastern
Federation till a comparatively late day.
PRIVATE COLLECTIONS.
57
red pottery contains a central black diaphragm, also
unexplained ; it is limited on either side by lines of
brick-colour with a smaller diameter.
The late Professor Sgarzi thus analysed speci-
mens of the Villanova pottery (' Boll. d. corr. arch.,'
1837, p. 30):
Black figured
Red figured
Fine little
Fine little
Ossuary.
Ossuary.
black Tazza.
red Tazza.
Silex
52
44
5°
48
Alum
20
18
16
22
Lime
O2
01
OI
OI
Iron oxide
12
24
20
18
Azotised organic "I
matter . J
O2
OI
03
03
Water .
IO
09
09
06
Loss
02
03
01
02
Totals .
lOO'OO
lOO'OO
lOO'OO
lOO'OO
Count Gozzadini, aided in this casse-tete by the
ingenuity of his wife, pieced together the crushed
fragments of funereal potteries, and found them to
be of the same form with three exceptions, namely,
red, unornamented dolia, surmounted by three pro-
tuberances about 34 centimetres (= r foot i inch)
high, and apparently serving as anscz. Of a hundred
only three had double handles, contrary to the custom
of the Greeks ; consequently, we should be careful
in applying to them Hellenic names. Another
58 THE WORKS OF MAN.
curious form, previously found only in the Albano
necropolis, is the double cone joined at the base
— of this more presently. The children's ossua-
ries averaged 19 centimetres (= 7*48 inches) ; the
adults' 39 centimetres (= I foot 3 inches). They
are mostly black, though a few are red ; the ansce
are of many and various shapes — semi-elliptic,
twisted, rectilinear, and undulated. The surface is
either plain or adorned ; the characteristics are
hollow impressions (graffiti] upon soft paste, by a
tool with three, four, or even five equidistant points,
raised in cameo, and thus making parallel lines.
Other common decorations are
simple and double pyramids and
meanders, single, coupled, or
interlaced. The most general
are lines of disks, different in
dimensions, with three concentric
circles like some of the dice ;
Here the^nstru^nt "has been tllCD COIHC dotted pyramidal and
turned to make the different
serpentine lines of peculiar shape ;
the latter, which are also found on bronzes, may
denote the Genius of the Dead, or be emblems
of mortality ; whilst ducks and geese, living in air,
in water, and on earth, show the several abodes of
PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. 59
the phantasm or ghost, which we will not call a
spirit or a soul. Some have nude, archaic man-
nikins, disposed in lines round the vases ; they are
drawn as children draw, with big oval heads, double
lines for bodies, and single lines for limbs — perhaps
they represent the manes who watch over the
sepulchre ; and the same may be said of the ser-
pents. The accessories of the ossuaries are mostly
patera and tazze, the five double cups before figured,
shaped like dice-boxes with the central diaphragm,
standing 22 centimetres (= 8*66 inches) high, and
with an interior diameter of 16 centimetres (= 6 '30
inches) : perhaps they represent the SsVa^ ap^ixv-
TrsXAov or the 6<x-j7rsXXov of Homer (II. vi. 220), and
of Aristotle (' De Hist. Animal.' ix. 40). A fre-
quent ornament is the double line of crosses, some
contained in circles : a subject treated by the learned
Gabrielle de Mortillet, in ' Le Signe de la Croix
avant le Christianisme,' ch. 2. Finally, three ossu-
aries and one black patera (Numa nigrum catinum)
have each a meander, not engraved, but made by
a white band of superimposed paste unhardened
in the fire. This, perhaps, is an approach to
painting.
The so-called clay spindles found at Villanova
60 THE WORKS OF MAN.
number 169, and of these only 3 bear makers'
marks.1 As 7 were yielded by a single tomb, and
an accessory vase contained 12, Count Gozzadini
suggests that they were the glandules attached to
the robe, intended to preserve the graceful form ;
for instance, in the pallium of Jupiter, the tunic
of Minerva, the chlamys of the Augustan lares,
and the peplum of Hope and of the tragedian. He
assigns the same office to 24 bronze globes and
spheroids, the ' clavi ' of Visconti, of which 8 were
produced by one sepulchre ; each was attached to
a ring, and the whole weighed 24 to 33 grammes
( = 37O'37 to 509 '26 grains avoir.). He would thus
explain that debated passage in Horace (Epist. i.
6, 50) :—
Mercemur servum qui dictet nomina, Isevum
Qui fodiat latus, et cogat trans pondera dextram
Porrigere.
The metal articles were mostly bronze, with a
few iron. Analysis of the former {fibula} gave
copper 84*26 parts, and 15*74 of tin. Of the nine
specimens of ess rude, irregularly shaped (7), and
1 Count Gozzadini (Di un Sepolcreto, etc., p. 20) published eighteen
of these makers' marks, which are either upon the edges, the bellies,
or the bottoms of the vases. Usually they are supposed to show the
proprietor or the value of the article ; they may be so on the two
fibulce of Villanova, but these valueless bits of clay would hardly
deserve the honour.
PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. 61
parallelopipedons (2), as if cut from an ingot ; the
smallest weighed 12-52, and the largest 64' 1 8
grammes (= 193^2 1 to 989^2 grains avoir.). Count
Gozzadini, finding them only in four tombs out of
193, doubts their being Charon's fee — the conclusion
is against Villanova being purely Etruscan. Of
the §7$ fibula, 550 were bronze, offering at least n
several types ; many were in pairs, as if used double
to fasten the ' plaid ; ' and one tomb produced 30,
several of them twisted and broken. The hollow
heads were stuffed with a paste containing 65 per
cent, of alum, oxide of iron and carbonate of lime,
30 of silex, and the rest water and loss ; the enamel,
which was generally dark blue and sometimes bright
yellow, was composed of lime, silex, and oxides of
iron and copper. The shapes are simple, delicate,
and elegant, with fine curves and clearly cast
angles ; the elongated forms explain why long, lean
Junius was called 'fibula ferrea' (Quinctil. vi. 3) ;
and the ornaments are as various as the modules.
Here a bird of many-coloured glass stands in relief;
there the metal contains a bit of amber, which the
old Etruscans appear to have valued as highly as
the modern Somal.1 Others had chains, beads of
1 Prof. Capellini (Congresso Internazionale,ec.,nel 1874. Bologna :
62 THE WORKS OF MAN.
blue glass, and similar materials, with pincers, and
decorations, either pendent, or strung to the convex
portion.
The hair-pins numbered 53, besides the many
which crumbled to pieces, and 6 were found in a
single tomb. The large, hollow heads were stuffed,
like they£<^/^, with siliceous paste, and the blade was
long enough to be used by Fulvia, Herodias, or
the Trasteverian virago. Some of these served to
retain the hair in position, and others are the
discriminates — so called from the frontal discrimen
(parting) which, in the days of Tertullian, dis-
tinguished the matron from the maiden. Many of
the shapes are still preserved by the peasantry of
Polesina, and other parts of Italy. There were also
bundles of rings, 29 items in one sepulchre, which,
perhaps, were also used for supporting the hair.
We find in Martial (ii. 66) :
Unus de toto peccaverat orbe comarum
Annulus, incerta non bene fixus acu.
The ' tutulus,' a pyramidal or conical Etrus-
can cap, more or less acute, which represented the
Gamberini e Parmeggiani, 1874) discusses the Bolognese amber — a
red, not a polychroic, variety, which is still found at Scanello, and about
Castel S. Pietro ; whilst the polychroic has recently been discovered
in the Cesenate. Thus the Umbrians and the Etruscans had no need to
seek the semi-mineral in Sicily or on the Baltic shores.
PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. 63
modern chignon, also required some such support *
besides the teenies (fillets) and the bronze plates,
17 millimetres broad, which resembled the a^Troxs^
of the Greek belles. There were rings of other
sorts, especially groups of fives passing through a
large circle which bore a peduncle. The average
diameter was 8 millimetres (= 3' 15 inches) ; a
single ossuary yielded 46 bunches, besides 578
scattered specimens ; they were, probably, the de-
corations of a dress consumed on the rogus, and,
though cumbrous, they are not more so than the
' jets ' still in fashion.
The small number (26) of bracelets, large and
massive, thin and cylindrical, straight and twisted,
shows that these articles were not of universal use,
as we might expect to find amongst a people
coming from the East. Some are TrspixdpTria
(wristlets), others bracelets proper, worn by both
sexes upon the upper arm (7rspi&pa%tovia} ; a single
skeleton had an iron specimen, probably valuable
in those times. One is marked with the broad
arrow J, ; it also appears on the pottery, on a
1 ' Tot premit ordinibus, tot adhuc compagibus altum
caput' (Juvenal, vi. 502), is painfully true in 1875. The tutuhts, or
lofty conical cap of the priest, is worn by women in the Grotta delle
Bighe (Dennis, i. 330 and 341).
64 THE WORKS OF MAN.
bronze hatchet from Villanova, on a cyst found
near Bologna, and on a carved ivory in the Vulci
necropolis. Some are bent and broken, evidently
by a heavy instrument.
The clavi, or buttons, 8 millimetres (= 3*15
inches) in breadth, and 199 in number, might have
been applied to the peplum or tunic. The ossuary
used also to be similarly draped in very ancient
times ; and our modern churchyards still show its
descendant in the shape of a veiled urn — a mean-
ingless article until we again begin to ' cremate.'
The other buttons were, possibly, rather ornaments
than intended for buttoning.1
The warlike weapons were two thick and heavy
lance-heads, with tangs to fit into the shaft — the
lance is believed, despite Herodotus, to be of
Etruscan origin. Of the Paalstab or hatchets (?)
two were of iron and three of bronze. One of the
1 I have never been able to arrive at any conclusion concerning
the date when the button-hole originated. The oldest form, preserved
by the peoples of the nearer East, is the loop which encircles the
button. In Prof. Nicolucci's Age de la pierre dans les Provinces
Napolitaines, published by the Congres, he remarks of (p. 32) five
almond-shaped stones : 'J'ignore a quoi les instruments pouvaient
servir, mais on peut penser ou que ce sont des poingons a double
pointe . . . ou un bouton a fermoir pour ve'tements, parceque, dtroite-
ment serre*s au milieu avec un fil sur une peau ou sur du drap, ils
pouvaient etre commode'ment introduits dans un oeillet, et tenir les
pieces de vetement solidement serre'es.'
PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. 65
latter, found broken into four twisted fragments,
is remarkable for the disposition of its wings and
for the length, 9 centimetres (= 3*54 inches), being
exactly half the breadth. The other, measuring 1 7
centimetres (= 6^69 inches) long, and i6\ ( = 6*5
inches) broad, has the wings or lateral points
curved ; and the unusually thin blade is only i milli-
metre (= 0*04 of an inch) thick ; it might have
been used in religious ceremonies or as a votive
offering, like the large bronzes from the Danish
turbaries described by Worsaae. There are five
smaller articles (axes ?), between 8 and 1 1 centi-
metres (= 3-15 to 4-33 inches) long, by 5 (= 1-97
inch) broad ; and five have sockets instead of
grooves. One shows an iron edge set in the bronze,
which would suggest the baser metal to have been
still valuable ; yet 18 are wholly iron ; and another
bears the wedge V- Two little archaic horses pro-
bably belonged to the bridle-bit, offerings made
when the steed was slain to carry the ghost into
what Dahome calls Kutome, or Dead Man's Land.
The cultri number 10 iron to 18 bronze, which
may almost be called copper, as the percentage of
tin is only 3*93. The very thin handles of wood
or bone were rivetted by short screws. The most
F
66
THE WORKS OF MAN.
peculiar, but by no means, as has been stated, pecu-
liarly characteristic of Felsina, are a dozen 'ferra-
menta lunata' (Columella De R.R. xii. 56), with edges
only in the convex parts of the crescents. These have
been found in the islands of the Greek Archipelago,
in Attica, Bceotia, in many parts of Etruria, and
even north of the Alps. The fineness of the blade
suggests the razor, which India preserves in the
hatchet shape.
THE NOVACULA.
Thus we find in Martial (ii. 58),
Sed fuerit curva cum tuta novacula theca
Frangam tonsori crura manusque simul ; 1
and Pliny (N.H. xxxii. 5), terms a fish 'novacula
1 Varro (de R. R. ii. cap. n) tells us that the Romans began to
shave about the fifth century u.C. But the learned Prof. Rocchi has
PRIVATE COLLECTIONS.
seu orbis.' Ten large and heavy iron knives, some
with handles of the same metal, are the ' clunacula,'
used to cut up the victims, and there are a few
shovel-shaped articles, with ornamental hilts and
bevelled edges, which may have served as bis-
touries to inspect the entrails.
Six bronzes, composed of two concentric circles
united by five rays, may be phalerce or horse-frontlets ;
but no other museum possesses anything like them.
THE BISTOURIE.
THE PHALER.«.
Equally mysterious are the hatchet-shaped
bronzes, with large rings for handles, and in some
cases profusely ornamented on both sides. They
shown that this was a custom of the Etruscans long before that period.
The cemetery of Alba Longa and the oldest Italic tombs have not
yielded razors. Prof. Lignana (Bullet. delF Inst. Arch. Rom. Jan.-
Feb. '75), considering the words Ksura (Rig-Veda}, £vp6v (Iliad, x. 173,
£7Ti Kvpov 'iararai cr/e^c), the German scheere ( = shears), holds that the
shaving implement was known to the Indo-European race before its
separation.
F 2
68
THE WORKS OF MAN.
are associated with small elongated rods of bronze
capped at either end, and this suggested that
the plate is a trigonum or deltaton ; in fact, a
gong sounded with the virgula. Real tintinnabula
were known to the Etruscans, but that would not
hinder them from using an article so common
throughout the East. On the other hand, when
struck they yield no sound ; they are evidently unfit
for cutting, and the bronze nails always found near
them suggest that they were mounted on staves and
were carried in procession — the 'pelekys,' or axe,
being an amulet against fascination. The Canadian,
PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. 69
or rather Catholic, superstition of church-bells fright-
ening away evil spirits is found in Ovid (Fast. v. 4,
23).
Temesaeaque concrepat aera
Et rogat ut tectis exeat umbra suis.
On which Gierig remarks : ' JEris autem tinnitum
aptum esse habitum ad spectra ejicienda docet
Neapolis ; ' and the Scholiast of Theocritus teaches
us that the sound of brass was used in the most
sacred rites by reason of its purity, and because
it expelled abominations. Hence the bells was
adopted by Christianity and rejected by El Islam.
Three bronzes, whose long, broad handles and
rounded heads represent capcdines or cup-ladles for
drawing wine during the sacrifices have also been
found ; one in a clay pot, probably the tirnnla fictilis
serving for the same object ; while a second was
taken from one of the six distinguished tombs. The
latter also yielded an inverted cone, with two move-
able handles, to prevent the liquor being spilt, and a
cover with the apical knob : this was probably the
amiila or acquiminarium for the lustration water,
not the situla for sacrificial wine. Here were nails
of sorts, one bearing on its broad head the cross,
interlaced with the five circles of the mystic die. It
70 THE WORKS OF MAN.
is suggested that the latter may have been used
either for the coffin, or as an offering to Charon, in
case his barque required repair. Less intelligible
are the seven hollow fusiform rods with raised cir-
cles and hatted heads which so frequently occur.
Some antiquaries have seen in them
spindles, or 'wharrow spindles' — those
used when walking. But the practical
fileuse declared that they are of no ac-
count for her trade.
It is a proof of high antiquity that
only one ' idol ' or human figure for
worship was found. Better proportioned
than are most archaic specimens, it
appears, judging from the bosom, to be
a woman ; and there are signs of her
having been placed upon a pedestal.
The head bears the symbolic circle,
with two reversed birds, whilst another
pair of volatiles perches upon the
haunches ; and her arms appear to be holding two
spherical bodies. All who are familiar with modern
art in Egypt, Syria, and Persia will recognise these
bird ornaments. The other figures are those on
pottery and the archaic horses before mentioned.
PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. 71
Amongst minor matters are a small bronze
sphere with two projecting points ; a bronze ring
with the mystic Tau ; a little bronze handle richly
adorned ; four volsellce (tweezers) ; an aurisculpium
(ear-pick) ; five needles and nine bronze brooches.
The bone implements are fibulce, a cylinder (a
handle ?), and other articles of less importance.
As regards the tomb-people, Count Gozzadini,
judging from the phase of art and from the pre-
sence of the as rude — a coin unknown to the
days of Romulus1 — determines Villanova to be not
Umbrian, but Etruscan, of the earliest iron age,
whose apogee of civilisation preceded the founda-
tion of Rome. He utterly rejects the Gauls both
1 With great satisfaction I see Mr. J. H. Parker, C.B., in his
Archceology of Rome (2 vols. : Murray, 1874), sturdily preserving
these time-honoured names, and thus protesting against the vague,
nebulous, wunderbar myth-theories with which Germany during the
last generation has infected the exact, practical, and matter-of-fact
English mind. Perizonius, Pouilly, and Beaufort began the heresy,
but left no school. As usual, it was adopted by the Germans, who
carry out, but who do not invent ; and Niebuhr — so great as a his-
torian, so small as a topographer, geographer, and archaeologist — took
it up as an especial hobby. It has now tyrannised over the English
mind for thirty-seven years, and the period (1825-1862) was unhappily
that when political and other matters introduced a kind of Teutono-
mania into our island. The reaction began with M. J. J. Ampere's
Histoire Romaine a Rome (1862); and lately M. F. Max Miiller's theory
has successfully been proved a 'solar myth' — with a tendency, I might
add, towards the earth's satellite.
72 THE WORKS OF MAN.
here and at Marzabotto.1 He is joined by Henzen,
who, with a host of others, first judged the sepul-
chres, chiefly from their shape, to be Keltic ; by Dr.
Forchhammer ; by MM. Minervini and Fabretti
(the great Etruscologue) ; and by Prof. Carl Vogt,2
whose outspoken theories upon the subject of faith,
e.g. ' L'Etre Superieur est un produit de 1'ignor-
ance et de la peur,' and upon the friendship be-
tween Mr. Calvert and King Cakombau (p. 307),
must have somewhat startled the ' respectables ' of
the Bologna Congress. The late Professor Orioli,
writing anonymously in the ' Arcadia ' paper (T.
412-414, p. 58), offered the three following objec-
tions : —
i. The tombs were neither rock-hewn, nor of
1 ' L'e'le'ment e"trusque de Marzabotto est sans melange avec 1'e'le'-
ment gaulois ' (Extrait des matSriaux pour Vhistoire primitive de
rhomme: Toulouse, 1873).
2 In ' Anthropophagie et Sacrifices humains' (Congres, pp. 295-
328) man is successively insectivorous, frugivorous, and carnivorous,
or rather anthropophagous (p. 296). Cannibalism denotes a relatively
advanced civilisation (p. 298). Every religion is, without exception,
' 1' enfant de la peur et del'ignorance' (p. 300); the 'Deity is unknown, and
religion is the worship of the inconnu' (ibid.}; 'Dieu est un superlatif,
dont le positif est 1'homme' (ibid.}; 'les furieux couronne's de 1'ancien
Testament' (p. 308); human sacrifice amongst the ancient Israelites
(p. 321); and a few other vigorous assertions of the kind, must have
been somewhat ' shokin' ' to the sons of that ' terre predestined,' who
combine easy incuriousness with a strong prepossession in favour of
' leaving things alone.'
PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. 73
opus quadratum, nor barrow-covered, after Rasennic
fashion.
2. They contained articles of small value.
3. They had few weapons — he might have
added, they lacked inscriptions.
He therefore determined the tenants to be of
barbarous strain, aborigines, Pelasgi, Umbrians — a
theory also supported by the distinguished Professor
G. Nicolucci — or even the Boii Gauls, who ended
the Etruscan rule in the fourth century of Rome.
M. de Mortillet assigned them to the interval be-
tween the bronze age and the Etruscan occupation,
and, ' pour ne rien prejuger sous le rapport his-
torique,' he prudently indicated the epoch as that of
early Rome, First Iron. Prof. Calori reminds us
of Polybius (ii. 17), who declares that the adjacent
Gauls trafficked with the Etruscans, and that the
only art or science known to the former was agricul-
ture. This assertion, however, is somewhat modi-
fied in the matter of metal by Livy (xxxvi. 40) ; in
ornamentation by Diodorus Siculus (v. 27-30) ; and,
finally, by modern investigation. That distinguished
authority, however, is positive that ' 1'antica necro-
poli alia Certosa e Etrusca, etruschissima.' Finally,
Prof. Count J- Conestabile (pp. 74-81, ' Monumenti
74 THE WORKS OF MAN.
e Annali di Corr. Arch.,' 1856), comparing Villanova
with Stadler in the Trentine, draws from the archi-
tectonic forms and the interior disposition of the
sepulchres the two following conclusions : —
1. The Etruscans everywhere varied their struc-
tures to conform with material means and with local
customs.
2. The northern Etruscans did not display in
their cemeteries scattered near the Po and about its
Campagna the wealth and luxury of Middle Etruria.
The latter has ever been the great centre, the chief,
the most evident, and the most durable image of the
civilisation and power of the race — a development
which, we may add, resulted from commerce with
Greece and the nearer East
Despite this weight of authority, I must still
withhold judgment. The late Count Giovanni da
Schio (loc. cit. p. 15, etc.) seems to have shown
satisfactorily enough that, in the Vicentine, Gallic
are freely mixed with Etruscan local names. But
a stronger reason is the similarity of the catacombs
in Guernsey, not to mention other places, with these
so-called Etruscan remains. The former we know
to be Keltic from such names as ' Pouquelaye '
(Pwca= fairy, and lies, a lay or place), ' Les Rocques
PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. 75
Brayes' (in Breton, ' Roc'h Braz,' les grosses pierres ) \
and ' L'autel du Tus ' (or Thus), pronounced
' 1'autel du Dehus ' — evidently the Dus or Dusius of
the Gauls. In Guernsey we have the hougue or
cairn ; the kistvaen (Chambre des Fe'es) containing
human ashes, pottery, celts, and arrow-heads ; pro-
tected by cap-stones or ledgers, and floored with
irregular slabs and round, smooth, peddles (for in-
stance, at La Creux des Fees) ; ' in which were
deposited' ('Hist, of Guernsey' by Jonathan Dun-
can. London: Longmans, 1841) ' the bones, urns,
and other vessels, with such offerings as the zeal or
affection of the friends of the deceased was disposed
to leave with them/
I would not strain the resemblance. The kist-
vaen was found by Capt. Congreve, and, since his
day (1845), by many explorers in India and other
parts of Asia. But the slab and pebble floorings,
which argue that the dead would pollute the sacred
face of earth, are highly suspicious features, sug-
gesting identity of race. On the other hand, we
shall find the huts parquetted with this rudest of
mosaic which still forms the pavement in the streets
of North Italian towns, and the 'long home' in
Etruria is often a palpable copy of the home. And,
76 THE WORKS OF MAN.
again, I have shown (p. 51, ' Anthropologia,' No. T,
October, 1873), that the Tupi Brazilians buried
water-rolled pebbles as well as stone implements
with their dead.
PART II.
THE ABODES OF MAN
'L'fitrurie, par la civilisation Romaine, a hate la civilisation de
Phumanite toute entiere, ou du moins elle lui a laisse par une longue
suite des siecles 1'empreinte de son caractere'
HUMBOLDT, Cosmos (n.)
79
SECTION I.
VARIOUS FINDS.
TAKING Bologna as a centre, the whole circle, with
a radius of 22 kilometres, and especially the line of
the Via ^Emilia, appears to be one vast repository
of Etruscan antiquities. As early as 1848 Sig.
G. Dozza discovered on the Ronzano hill, 4 kilo-
metres west-south-west of the city, various bronzes ;
a sword, with broken blade and handle ; two bridle-
bits, with small figures of horses ; and a fragment
of the fusiform and hatted rod before alluded to.
Three years afterwards Sig. P. Calari unearthed
human skeletons, bronzes, and coloured glass, near
Sta. Maddalena di Cazzano, 15 kilometres on the
riverine plains to the east- north-east. In 1854 the
property of Marchese Amorini, 13 kilometres east-
south-east of Bologna, and 6^ from Villanova,
disclosed a sepulchre containing yftfo/fe, and a
hair-pin adorned with glass. In this neighbourhood
an estate belonging to the Marchese Lodovico
8o THE ABODES OF MAN.
Mariscotti yielded such a quantity of laminated
gold wire — an article found for the first time in the
Bolognese — that it was secretly sold for a good
round sum, and to the great loss of archaeologists :
presently an ossuary disclosed the true character
of the find. In 1860 a slab and pebble-rivetted
kistvaen came to light in the parish Delle Lagune,
where the small torrential ' Rio Mavor ' breaks
through the Castlar gorge. It contained black
pottery ; clay ' dumb-bells ' (see Sect, iv.) marked
with a wedge (V) ; hair-pins ; and a score of
bronze fibula adorned with amber and figures of
birds. Six kilometres farther from the capital, in
the parish of Canovella, nearly opposite Marza-
botto, appeared two crescent-shaped cultri or
novacultz, and brooches {fibultz], with beads of
glass and amber. At Ramonte, in the opposite
mountains of Medelana, were found pottery ; cir-
cular bones with engraved lines ; two bridle-bits ;
a fusiform, hatted rod ; and a bronze ladle with a
handle like an S inverted. In 1865 at Pontecchio,
along the Reno, about 7 kilometres distant from
Bologna, and beyond Ronzano, a kistvaen, resem-
bling those of Villanova, was opened by Sig. C.
Monari, who gave the contents to the Communal
FORMER FINDS. 81
Museum ; here also Sig. Marconi found a crescent-
shaped cutting-instrument. In 1866, below the
hills near the Ghiaie torrent, close to the village
of Bazzano, 22 kilometres west-north-west of Fel-
sina appeared ossuaries, fusiform rods, cylinders,
fibtila, stamped pottery, and other articles. At the
Comune di Liano, near the Via Emilia, in 1869,
ossuaries and bronzes, and shortly afterwards other
similar articles brought from the mountainous parish
of Riosto, distant 1 5 kilometres, became the property
of Dr. L. Foresti.
Finds were made inside the new and outside the
ancient city, at the Piazzale S. Domenico ; in the Via
di S. Petronio Vecchio ; in the Ca de' Tortorelli
(now Palazzo Malvasia) ; at the Pradello ; and in the
Arsenale Militare. The three latter are especially
interesting, because they disclose the remains of
Old Felsina to the broad daylight of the nineteenth
century ; they define the eastern, western, and
southern limits of what Pliny, describing the Padan
or eighth region of Italy, calls (N. H. iii. 20)
' Bononia Felsina vocitata cum princeps Hetruriae
esset' 1 And here I would warn my readers that
1 The translators, ' Bostock and Riley'(Bohn, 1855), remark (vol.
i. p. 241) upon the word Bononia: ' The modern Bologna stands on its
82 THE ABODES OF MAN.
Bologna is split, Etruscologically speaking, into two
camps. These, under Gozzadini, the man of science
and literature, everywhere see the necropolis and
the sepulchre. Those, headed by Zannoni, the man
of practice and experiment, find remains of house
and home where their opponents detect only the
long home. This difference will be especially
noticed when we visit Marzabotto.
The Tortorelli mine was struck in 1856 when
Count Ercole Malvasia was strengthening the found-
ations of the old palace (No. 262) to support new
buildings. The site is the Via Maggiore, doubtless
a section of the Via ^Emilia, outside the two chief
leaning towers, Asinelli and Garisanda. These
' donkeys' ears ' formed in the sixteenth century
the Ravennese gateway, which was probably added
to the city in the eleventh century. Of the ' Torr
dai Asnie ' I may remark that it is the seventeenth
tallest building in the civilised world — only 2\
metres lower than St. Paul's. A local poet sings
of it as follows : —
In sta Cittk al fra quel d' i Strazzarno
Ch' ha la Torr dai Asnie, e la Mozza indrito.
The Tortorelli excavations were directed and
site, and there are but few remains of antiquity to be seen.' A score of
years has brought with it many changes.
THE TORTORELLI FINDS. 83
described in detail by Count Gozzadini (' Di alcuni
antichi sepolcri felsinei,' vol. iv. pp. 74 et seq., in
the Neapolitan paper ' Giambattisto Vico,' 1857, and
in the opuscule ' Di alcuni sepolcri della necro-
poli felsinea, Bologna:' Fava e Garagnani, 1868).
Remains judged to be Roman were found at the
usual depth of two metres ; eight sepulchres, of
which three were intact, lay one metre below
their successors, and extended two metres in
depth, forming the normal total of five below the
actual surface. Judging from the known cemeteries
about Bologna, a small part of this mine has been
worked and much is still hidden underground.
The mortuary vases were eight ossuaries, some-
times set obliquely ; potoria, possibly, for the silicer-
nium;1 the crater of purely Etruscan shape, and
the various tazze, cups, cup-covers, and accessories
of the tomb. Many were beautifully shaped, wheel-
made, hand-smoothed, polished not varnished, and
adorned with graffiti? The metals are represented
1 This mortuary feast, which survives in our cake and wine, con-
sisted of meat, bread, eggs, beans, lettuce, lentils, salt and cates, espe-
cially the mustacea and the crustula (Kirchm. de Funer., &c., p. 521).
2 The English reader, accustomed to our sense of this word —
' scrawlings ' or ' scribblings ' on walls, &c. — will note that in this paper
it also is used after the Italian fashion (graffito being opposed to
liscio, smooth) for denoting such marks as toolings on pottery.
G 2
84
THE ABODES OF MAN.
by a single piece of oxidised iron, arguing a higher
antiquity than the more distant tombs ; and by
many bronzes, crescent-shaped knives, fusiform
rods, fibula, nails, and an armilla : a bit of amber,
and part of the dorsal column of a young pike
THE MALVASIA CALVES.
(Exos Lucius, Linn.), which may have contributed
towards the banquet, were also picked up. The
most curious article is a stela, showing, in very flat
relief, two calves erect and facing gardant, each
THE PRADELLO FINDS. 85
with the near forehoof on the bracts of a caulis.
The shape is to the highest degree archaic, this
curious monument was presented by Count Ercole
Malvasia to the Archaeological Museum of the
Municipality.
At the Pradello (Pratello) on the opposite or
western side of Felsina, within the modern gate S.
Isaia, upon the properties Borghi Mamo and Casa
Grandi, appeared in 1873 certain rernains, which
Count Gozzadini judged, from a gold and figured
mirror, to be sepulchres (' Rapporto alia R. Deputa-
zione di stor. patria per la Romagna,' 1873), and
which Cav. Zannoni seems to have established as
huts (' Cenno sugli Scavi della Via del Pratello,'
etc. : Bologna, Gamberni e Parmeggiani, 1873).
The man of practice compares them with the five
capanne (hovels) of the ' Mamolo find ' to the south,
and with the 2 1 6 neolithic, and the 1 6 bronze-age
huts discovered by Cav. Concezio Rosa in the
Vibrata river valley,1 which also yielded traces of
the early iron period.
1 This Abruzzian Valley extends from the Apennines at Montefiore,
or Civitella del Tronto, to the Adriatic. A description of the finds,
especially a fish-hook and lilliputian knives, will be found in pp. 25-27
of the Congrh. See also Prof. Capellini's L' eta della pietra nella Valle
della Vibrata. Quarto, three plates: Bologna, 1871.
86 THE ABODES OF MAN.
The 29 Bolognese huts, distant about a metre
from the road, mostly circular and some oblong,
occupied an area sunk one metre below the actual
road and 0*80 metre (=2 feet 7.5 inches) under the
ancient horizon, which may be called the virgin
soil. A few were isolated, others communicated by
passage or corridor 0*85 metre (=2 feet 9*5 inches)
wide, and a little raised above the level of the
flooring ; and the latter in both kinds showed either
dark grey earth, chiefly animal matter, contrasting
with the yellow calcareous soil, based on water-rolled
pebbles, sometimes in double layers, which suggest
that the pavement of the kistvaen was a mere
imitation of the house. Some of the hovel-founda-
tions had holes to admit the perpendicular supports
of the conical or the pent-shaped roofs ; and the
walls were probably wattle daubed with clay, the
adobe of which we shall presently see a specimen.
Two huts had steps descending from north to
south, and No. 25 seemed to be provided to the
west with that manner of porch which the man of
Central Africa loves. The earthen flooring carried
in depth from 0*45 metre (= i foot 57 inches) to
o-8o metre ( = 2 feet 7.5 inches), and a section
showed a number of small strata, sometimes sepa-
THE PRADELLO FINDS. 87
rated by thin layers of sand. Each bed was a
conglomerate of remains. Amongst them, the
principal were the CBS rude, mostly ' scoriform,' then
the laminated and the cylindrical ; bronzes, fibulce,
plain and decorated ; women's ornaments ; and a
fine spear-head. The pottery, which composed most
of the conglomerate, was red, brown, and rarely
black ; a few bore graffiti, and some of the ansce
wore the semblance of equine heads. The makers'
marks appeared on many fictiles, whose forms were
either absolutely new, or resembled those of the Villa-
nova, Tortorelli, and Arnoaldi tombs. The clay
'dumb-bells' were not wanting, and there were 'pen-
deloques' (pendants) of the same material. A few
stone implements were found, and an extraordinary
quantity of split bones of beasts, especially the stag,
then the pig, sheep, goat, and ox. One cervine
horn bore the tally as still used by the rustic
world, and a handle was engraved with a rude
sketch of some quadruped ; there were also rings
and thin disks of deer-horn. Cav. Zannoni ends
his interesting letter to Prof. Calori with expressing
an opinion that the remains are those of the peo-
ples who had occupied, and who left their tombs
at, Villanova, Ca de' Bassi, Ca de' Tortorelli, S.
88 THE ABODES OF MAN.
Polo, the Scavi Arnoaldi, and other adjoining
sites. He leaves to that learned archaeologist the
task of determining the race. The general opinion
seems to be that these 29 huts were remains of
the oldest or Umbrian settlement.
' The ' Mamolo find ' precedes, in point of date,
the Pradello. It was worked in January- April
by Cav. Zannoni. The site is the Villa Bosi, out-
side the Porta S. Mamolo, or southern city gate,
extending towards the Aposa rivulet, which is
generally made the eastern limit of Felsina, and
at the base of S. Michele in Bosco, where the
Arsenale Militare all' Annunziata now stands.
When ditch-digging near the right bank of the
Aposa, and close to the modern ' road of circum-
vallation,' the labourers, at a horizon of about
three metres, came upon a huge doliform and
ansated urn containing the covered ossuarium of
coral-red clay — a double precaution also noticed in
the Tortorelli finds. Prof. L. Calori examined
the bones, and judged them, from a tooth-fang, to
be those of a woman aged 30—40. Cav. - Zannoni
transmutes the sepulchres into five hut foundations.
Here the yield is comprised in 26 gold earrings
of full size, 6 armillcE, including one of iron, a bronze
THE MAMOLO FINDS. 89
spillone (pin or bodkin) 0*38 metre (= i foot 2-96
inches) long ; fibiike with transverse sections of bone
and amber ; bits of amber ; glass or vitrified clay,
with spiral uniting bands, coloured, as usual, blue
or yellow ; and a quantity of fictile fragments,
vases, patera, urncz, and so forth. Count Gozza-
dini (' Intorno ad alcuni Sepolcri scavati nell' Ar-
senale Militare di Bologna.' Bologna : 1875), notices
5 tombs, of which only one was intact, and gives
illustrations of two remarkable amber necklaces, (i)
of 25 large spheroids, the largest in the centre,
like a modern ' riviere ;' and (2) also numbering 25.
In the latter the forms are very various ; some are
imitations of the bulla worn by patrician boys,
whilst others represent shells (Cyprcza, etc.), per-
haps worn as amulets. He also figures a dwarf
head upon a square base pierced with four holes;
an image, which he would attribute to Phtah (vulg.
Harpocrates) x ; a band with four heads which ap-
pears to be the Egyptian coiffure ; a fish-shaped
ornament, also of amber ; a pendant ; a wonderfully-
worked fibula with nine chimaeras courant, retro-
gardant, and baillant ; and two of the hatchet-
1 The direct operator, under the Creative Will, in framing the
universe.
90 THE ABODES OF MAN.
shaped bronze plates which have been supposed to
be gongs and bistouries.
The find in the Strada S. Petronio, near the Via
Maggiore, produced only one remarkable object,
but it is, perhaps, the most important of the whole.
This virile head, larger than life and cut in the
' molassa,' or common miocene sandstone of the
country, is of very archaic type. The sides are ab-
normally flat, the long hair is combed off the brow,
and the bearded chin is of Patagonian dimensions.
Its similarity with toreutic works on the banks of
the hill reminds us of Strabo's assertion (viii. i, § 28)
touching the likeness of Egyptian and Tuscan art.
I have elsewhere suggested (' City of the Saints,'
p. 555), after observing at the 'Dugway Station' the
THE S. PETRONIO FIND. 91
untutored efforts of the white man in the Far West,
that ' rude art seems instinctively to take that form
which it wears on the bank of Nilus,' as babes
are similar all the world over. Dennis (i. Ixviii.)
also denies that the rigid and rectilinear Etruscan
style was necessarily imported from Egypt : ' Na-
ture, in the infancy of art, taught it alike to the
Egyptians, Greeks, and Etruscans, for it was not so
much art, as the want of art.' My observation was
presently confirmed to me by the graven images
of gods in Dahome and on the west coast of
Africa. Yet the discoveries made at Bologna have
fully justified the assertion of Strabo, an eye-witness;
and the evidences of intercourse between the races
now so far separated, not only explain a mystery but
lead to a highly interesting conclusion. The cosmo-
gonic system of the Etruscans has hitherto been
accepted with reserve. Professor L. Calori (' Delia
stirpe/ &c., p. 44), terms it ' Genesi Mosaica co-
rotta,' and, with C. Heyne and others, throws doubt
upon the accuracy of Suidas, a Greek of the later
ages (sub voce Tuppsvia) ; but the late excavations of
Mr. George Smith in Assyria distinctly prove that
the ' Creation and Fall of Man-myth ' extended
from the banks of the Nile as far as the Tigris and
92 THE ABODES OF MAN.
Euphrates ; and a cosmogony so widely diffused
would readily be introduced into Italy by an Oriental
race of immigrants, were they Lydians or Phoeni-
cians. Thus we may, upon this point at least,
rehabilitate Suidas versus C. Heyne, and explain
the 12,000 years' cycle of the old Etruscans.1
Some writers, I observe, use Mr. George Smith's
discoveries to stultify ' Darwinism,' and to establish
the universality of a tradition consecrated by ' reve-
lation : ' future ages will admire this distortion of
fiction into fact.
1 Suidas is the only writer who relates that an anonymous Tuscan
related to him how the Creator decreed a cycle of 12,000 years, half of
which were assigned to the work of creation, and the rest to the dura-
tion of the world, the period of subversion, and perhaps of renovation,
for gods and men. In the first millenary the Demiurgus made heaven
and earth ; in the second the visible firmament ; during the third the
sea and waters ; in the fourth the great lights, sun, moon, and stars ;
in the fifth, birds, reptiles, and four-footed animals of the earth, air,
and sea ; and, finally, during the sixth, man. Here we have the germ
of the modern theory which would prolong into periods, even of untold
ages, what Genesis expressly asserts to be days, between 'Arab (Gharb
or sunset) and Bakar, dawn or morning. The duodecimality of the
Etruscan legend probably arises from a connection with the Zodiac :
for the latter, see the Zodiaco Etrusco (with plate) by the late Count
Giovanni da Schio : Padova, Angelo Sicca, 1856.
93
SECTION II.
FURTHER AFIELD. THE CERTOSA AND
CASALECCHIO.
WE have now seen, in the rich collections of Bologna
city, the art and industry of the Etruscan man, and
we shall find interest in an excursion to the sites
which yielded them : a long day may profitably be
spent in visiting the actual diggings. We will,
therefore, set out along the western line of the Via
Emilia, passing the Pradello, and issuing from the
S. Isaia or western gate.
The grand discovery of the Certosa (August
23, 1869) stimulated public curiosity, and Cav. Zan-
noni happily suggested (' fu millanteria, fu intuizione,
fu intimo presentimento ? ' ) that detached groups of
sepulchres would be found on alternate sides of the old
highway extending to the city walls. The Scavi
Benacci were begun in 1873, and early in 1875 I saw
nine tombs and places of cremation which had been
added to the 300 already laid open. As the ground is
94 THE ABODES OF MAN.
under cultivation, the exhausted trenches, after the
contents had been carefully sketched and measured
by the 'Capo Ingegnere Municipale' had been filled
up, per non dannificare il podere. The half-dozen
labourers received at the dead season 1*25 lire
per diem ; and at other times 1*50 to 2 lire. Four
distinct strata can be detected here and elsewhere,
the section showing well-marked lines : ist, and
highest, (Roman ?) mostly buried. 2ndly, buried
and burnt (Etruscan ?). 3rd, mostly burnt (Um-
brian ? Italic ?). 4th, and lowest, (protohistoric ?)
all burnt. The base of the rogus measured each
way no metre ( = 3 ft. 7*31 in.); the north of
the square was a roll of pottery, crushed by the
weight of superincumbent earth ; in the centre lay a
pot-cover, and to the east were the remnants of the
ossuary. A few yards further west were the Scavi
(of Cav. Francesco) De-Lucca ; two skeletons, with
skulls to the setting sun, had been disposed in the
bustum, some three metres under the modern level ;
and at the lowest horizon was the ustrinum. The
find which I witnessed was unusually rich ; pot-
tery with graffiti, a little iron, a quantity of broken
and rotten bronze, and a knife-blade, straight-edged
on one side, and on the other finely toothed. It was
THE CERTOSA AND CASALECCH1O. 95
probably a saw for cutting bones into objects of use
and ornament.
Hereabouts are the (Fondo Astorre) 'Arnoaldi
Diggings,' whence, about twenty years ago, an intact
skeleton, with a figured vase, placed as usual on the
left, was accidentally unearthed. Some forty-six
places of sepulture and cremation were at once dis-
covered in 1871-2, and, in 1873, silver-gilt fibula
were brought to light. On Dec. 4, 1873, two
bronze cysts, with raised rings,1 were added to the
two bronze situla, and other vases also with cordoni
a sbalzo ; to two armillae, various fibulce, the usual
quantity of ess rude, and large and elegant potteries,
covered, like those of Villanova, with graffiti. Four
tombs were also exposed in the Predio Tagliavini,
near S. Polo, and a trench, measuring nearly fifty
square metres, run from the Arnoaldi towards the
Tagliavini diggings, was even more fortunate.
We now resume the high road to Florence, a fine
macadam, nescient of the ' pike ' : to the right or
north lies the railway, and beyond it, as far as the
eye can see, stretches a plain flat enough to cause
short sight in its inhabitants. The frequent villages
1 They have also lately been found in the tumulus of Monceau-
Laurent, Commune de Magny-Lambert (Burgundy), and at Hallstadt
Rev. Arch., 1873 : plates xii. no. i, and xiii. no. 8).
96 THE ABODES OF MAN.
and steepled churches which rise above the vine-
bearing elm and the poplars hedging the wheat-
fields, give this valley a thriving and a pleasing
aspect. To the left are the rib-ends of the Pe-
ninsula's dorsal spine, gently-swelling hills, either
clothed in oak-scrub or patched with clayey white,
denoting cultivation, and mostly crowned with villas
and temples. After some 1,200 metres from the
city gate we enter the huge Certosa, whose lofty
Campanile has long been our guide. Dating from A.D.
1335, it measures some two kilometres in circumfe-
rence. Fortunately it was reformed by Napoleon I.,
or its mines of antiquarian wealth would still lie
buried. Now it contains only two seculars, a 'guar-
dian' for the church, and a 'custodian' for the
churchyards. The latter acts as 'demonstrator' ; he is
the nephew of a M. Sibaud, a Frenchman, who made
the first find, but who did not know how to utilise
his discoveries. In 1835, when t\\&pronaos of the
Pantheon, which is still building, was begun, bronzes
and potteries were thrown up ; and M. Marcellino,
son of the old ' demonstrator/ presented in 1 840 a
bronze statuette to Dr. Venturoli, Conservator of the
Archiginnasio (Old University) Museum at Bologna.
When curiosity was thoroughly aroused (1870) the
THE CERTOSA AND CASALECCHIO. 97
relics were found by the present curator, Cav. Luigi
Frati, stowed away in two boxes. They consisted of
bronze fibula, fragments of simpula (ladles), a can-
delabrum very like the modern Italian, and similar
articles.' The pottery was comprised in a painted
tazza and pieces of a great celebe for mixing wine
and water, similarly adorned ; an amphora, a crater
(mixing-jar), and minor matters. After 1835 many
small finds rewarded the workmen.
At length, on August 23, 1869, when a tomb was
being dug somewhat deeper than usual, in the
cloister (No. 3) called ' Delle Madonne in Certosa';
the fossini, reaching three metres, came upon a
bronze cyst, of the form before figured, containing
burnt bones and a large silver fibula : both the
band-box and its alabaster balsamary were broken.
Cav. Zannoni at once repaired to the spot, and deter-
mined, with remarkable perspicacity, that the Campo
degli Spedali, the burial-place of pauper hospital-
patients, must contain an Etruscan cemetery : it pre-
sently proved to be the greatest necropolis found
about Felsina. The Sindaco and Giunta allowed
him to expend 50 lire, and thus began, under his
superintendence, the ' Scavi della Certosa,' now so
H
98 THE ABODES OF MAN.
famed throughout Europe, which show, perhaps, the
most splendid age of the life of Felsina.
As the plan proves, we have five great groups.
The largest (No. i) lies in the northern part of the
Campo degli Spedali, or eastern cloister ; No. 2 is
PLAN OF THE CERTOSA.
i, 2, 3, 4, Groups of sepulchres in the Campo Santo. 5, The church.
south of it ; Nos. 3 and 5 are all around and even
inside the church ; and No. 4 is in the Campetto
delle Gallerie. The discoverer presently suggested
that this necropolis, or rather this fivefold cemetery,
THE CERTOSA AND CASALECCHIO. 99
belonged only to the western regio of Felsina, and
formed items of, perhaps, ten groups scattered be-
tween the city and its furthest western point.1 He
also suspected that the broad road, dividing the four
greater groups into two, was a suburban branch-
line of, or was perhaps, the primitive highway,
which ran a little south of its successor, the Via
^Emilia. He remarked also that the tombs and
pyres of the wealthy were the deepest ; and, sur-
rounded by open spaces, that they immediately
fronted the road, whilst the poor lay behind — we
may see the same in England. How much the
ground has changed is proved by the diggings,
which show two distinct floodings and deposits of
the Reno River.
We have seen the Certosa collections in the
Museo Civico, and we have remarked how admirably
they demonstrate the home life, the warfare, the reli-
gion, the commerce, the luxury of northern Etruria
in the days of her highest development.
The sepulchres illustrate the two epochs called
further north ' bruna-old ' (cremation), and ' hauga-
old' (inhumation, or rather tumulation2 ), the propor-
1 Sulle Ciste in Bronzo a Cordont, ec., ec. Bologna : OcL 15, 1873.
2 ' Haugr,' a cairn, is a Scandinavian word, which we have seen
preserved in the 'Hougue' of Guernsey.
H 2
THE ABODES OF MAN.
tions being respectively about 1:2. The depth of
the rogus and urna varies from o-26 metre (= 10*24
inches) to 5 '8 3 metres (= 19 feet i'53 inches) ; of
the tomb between 1*21 metre (=3 feet ir64
inches), and 6' 13 metres (=20 feet 1*34 inches) :
in both cases computed from the ancient horizon,
which is i '3 7 metre (=4 feet 6 inches) below the
modern.
Cav. Zannoni (p. 23) offers the following plan:
Depth.
f in
1JJ
C Rude metals
o-
B
1
J Large-sized
. .
!•(
E
( Figured
o-
.s
Marble
Cysts —
I'
CM
«
Bronze Situla
0
W
Wells
3«<
O
(/)
f
/ 1 st degree /•
0-93
O
of
J 2nd „ .(
mean 2 '88
O"
L.
(
(3rd „ (
4-02
"S f S
1 1 st degree (
1-85
•r« •< 2
I-C C •{ C/1
I of
2nd „ J
mean 2-83
r
3 •"" O
PQ 1 fc
1
(3rd „ (
4'5S
Minimum.
Maximum.
O-26
2'OI
I 'O6
?J
O-26
271
— I'll
I'll
I-98
>itula 1-16
3 '98
4-48
076
5-83
I '2 1
6,3
For the interment of the whole body were found
(p. 10) the four following arrangements, with their
proportions out of a total of 250 :
1. 83 rectangular unlined fosses of various size,
with the skeleton and the various articles almost
always deposited on the ground to the left.
2. 122 same kind of fosse, with rounded pebbles
THE CERTOSA AND CASALECCHIO. 101
thrown confusedly over the skeleton.1 This total,
however, includes No. 4.
3. 45 fosses with long wooden coffin (Pliny, xiii.,
27), of which only fragments and nails remain. The
area was sometimes covered with earth.
4. The small fosse, with walls lined by un-mor-
tared pebbles. Here nothing is said about the kist-
vaen ; and Cav. Zannoni seems to allude to one
only (p. 14).
Cremated remains were disposed in three ways
(p. 10). Out of 1 15 —
I. 72 in bronze cysts and situlcz; in fictile pots
(plain, 36; ornamented, 20 or i'8o to 100 of the
figured, and one in a marble vase.
II. 41 were in fosses, or o'56 to 100 of the
former.
III. The two wells had each one.
There is little at present to view in the Char-
treuse, except the local lion, its modern cemetery.
1 Here, again, we have the precaution of not allowing the corpse
to touch the earth. The Moslems, on the contrary, do not permit the
earth to touch the corpse ; the idea being that it would cause pain to
the still sentient clay. I wonder much that when all the press in Eng-
land, during the winter of 1874-5, was discussing an improved form of
sepulture, suggested by Mr. J. Seymour Haden, no one pointed out
how the system had extended through the Moslem East since the
days of Mohammed, and probably for an indefinite period before him.
102 THE ABODES OF MAN.
The entrance-hall contains the monuments which
precede the seventeenth century ; and one of them,
a sarcophagus on four dwarf pillars, resembles
Petrarch's tomb at Arqua. The necropolis is
thoroughly Italian, and one of the most remarkable
of its kind. Series of arcades, developing their long
galleries around the cloisters, embrace the little old
Certosa church which formed the nucleus of the big
new establishment. The bodies of the wealthy are
deposited under the pavement, or in the thickness
of the walls ; whilst the poor lie in the open central
grounds. The walls of the Campo Santo are
adorned with busts, reliefs, and statues, some of
which pretend to considerable art and value — its
general effect is somewhat that of a museum or a
sculpture-gallery. The only remnants of the old
tenants are a heap of water-worn oviform stones in
the western cloister, and two similar mounds in the
eastern, still showing the locality of the find. Even
in the church, skeletons were disinterred, as may be
seen from the fractures of the marble pavement
fronting the altar ; and a wall-tablet records the visit
of the fifth Archaeological Congress.
At the Certosa the useless arcade — I speak as a
Briton — crosses the Florence highway, and runs up
THE CERTOSA AND CASALECCHIO. 103
to the hill church of S. Luca, a favourite place of
pilgrimage, with a glorious view. Like that of
Vicenza, this gallery once bore frescoes showing the
' stemmata ' of noble families who built the several
arches, but during French occupation it was degraded
by whitewash. Our Gallic neighbours have not left
pleasant memories in this part of the world ; they
seem to have taken example from their forefathers,
the Boii, with the trifling difference of carrying off
instead of destroying. A mile and a half from the
Certosa places us at the villa of Count Denis Talon,
whose grounds command a prospect ready made for
its painter. Deep below the clay bank — here sleep-
ing in stagnant pools, where during frosts boys slide ;
there trotting in a thready streamlet, whose bed is a
broad, white Arabian wady, in summer mostly bone-
dry — lies the Reno River, no taciturnus amnis\ at
times the turbulent mountain-torrent, the general
drain of many a burrone or gully, springs from its
couch, in a mighty brown flood, and violently invades
the fields on either side.1 A solid dam of masonry
crosses the Fiumara bed, and from the left bank sets
1 For its classical claims consult the volume Dell' Antico Ponte
Romano sul Reno lungo I' Emilia, e della precisa postura dell' Isola del
Congresso Triumvirale. Memoria del Dott. Luigi Frati (Anno vi. Atti
e Memorie). Bologna, 1868.
104 THE ABODES OF MAN.
off the leat which supplies the city. Fertile ledges,
the site of the ancient river-valley, limited north as
well as south by mound-like and conical hill-ranges,
denoting the old bank, mark where it debouches
upon the plain. And afar, stretching from west to
south-west, are the steel-blue peaks, bluffs, and
blocks which, snow-capped in winter, part us from
Tuscan Pistoja.
Madame de Talon takes an intelligent interest in
the excavations upon her property beyond the Reno.
We cross the stream by a solid bridge of stone-
work, not too solid for its task, as the five arches,
of which three are full-sized, are sometimes choked
by the floods. Here is the modern ' Casalecchio,' a
common term in this part of Italy, meaning a group
of houses — Casalecchio di Rimini has lately distin-
guished itself by discovering a foundry of the later
bronze age. The sixty tenements are covered by a
tete de pont, and this forms a part of the earthwork
line of vallation which defends Bologna on all but the
southern or hill side. At the Osteria del Calza,
famed for revelry on Sundays and Saint Mondays,
we turn to the right, and ascend to the plane of the
Diluvial epoch, when the Glacial disappeared in ca-
taracts and cataclysms that swept everything before
THE CERTOSA AND CASALECCHIO. 105
them. The bank shows a section of the ground ;
humus based on a stratum of ' ghiaia,' and these
water-rolled pebbles overlie miocenic marl, resting
upon impermeable clay — we shall need this observa-
tion at Marzabotto. Vines and wheat flourish, but
the trees are stunted. The find was made when dig-
ging a trench to replant the elms. Ancient Casa-
lecchio stood at the very edge of the raised river-
bank, limiting the stream to the north, with a dainty
view, as if it had been chosen by Carthusians. The
little cemetery lay behind it. In Roman cities we
usually look for graveyards to the south ; in the
Greek colonies of Italy and Sicily to the north (De
Jorio, p. 52) ; the only rule of Etruria is to seek the
main lines of road. Three skeletons facing east-
wards had been exhumed, and one was transported
to Villa Talon, much to the horror of certain inmates.
It was declared to be Roman by the fact of its lying
upon broad tegultz, or pan-tiles, under a sloping
cover formed by two rows of the same pottery. This
is probably the local variety for the earthenware
coffins (Jictilia solia) of Pliny (xxxv. 46). The
remains in situ were puddings of broken and
crushed wine-jars; the ciottoloni (water-rolled pebbles)
used as flooring for house and tomb; and a bit of
io6 THE ABODES OF MAN.
intonaco (plaster or daub), an adobe-like mass, burnt
red, but still showing marks of calcined stalks and
the tracery of leaves. The other articles were a few
coins comparatively modern ; the sheath of a fibula,
with faz. patina ; a number of solid amphora, and
a fragment of pottery with bits of carbonised clay
set, by way of ornament, in the lighter-coloured mate-
rial. The owner will dig in a straight line between
the skeletons, and if the labourers come upon the
ancient highway a rich trouvaille may be expected.
A little further down stream lies the property of
Marchese Boccadelli, who is also preparing to make
fouilles, especially upon the northern range of
hillocks, the bank of a Reno much larger than it is
now.
107
SECTION III.
TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MIS A NO.
BEYOND Casalecchio the Florence road follows the
left of the valley, passing through well-cultivated
lands, where even wheel-ploughs are seen, and
amongst villas which must be charming in the sum-
mer heats. A total of i hour 15 minutes' sharp driving
places us at the Borgo del Sasso, a substantial vil-
lage, with the size of a hamlet and the houses of a
city. Near it is the Ca di Bassi, in the Predio Cor-
nelli, where six tombs were unearthed. One of them
contained the skeleton, with bronze vases, a clay
tazza, dice, and pebbles (counters ? ) ; the other five
showed remnants of the pyre, bronze engraved
fibula, with burnt-red pots, on some of which were
graffiti, whilst the sigli, or makers' marks, were very
clear. This is known from its owner as the ' Cor-
nelli find ' ; and in the precipitous face of the rock-
wall on the right are several caves : the entrances
io8 THE ABODES OF MAN.
are of that converging form by which the Egyptians
effected an economy of lintel ; and, if they have not
been dug, the sooner it is done the better.
Beyond the Borgo we debouch upon the con-
fluence of the Setta from the south-east with the
Reno from the south-west. The picturesque view of
sulphur-blue water, in broad, glaring white beds
overhung by high banks ; of gashed ravine and of
shaggy foot-hill backed by the true Apennines, is
justly admired, even in the land of ' rock, ruin, and
ravine.' Nor less singular is the road at this pass, a
blending of the highway and the railway. A deep
cutting in the sandstone rock leaves a slice standing
as a 'gardefou' upon the tall river-cliff; and, under
the off or right side, 'pedionomitic,' ^^-troglodytic,
abodes, cut, like those of Ariano (Capitanata), in the
' molassa,' line the bottom of the scarp. This bend
much resembles the place where the French line
from Beyrut to Damascus overlooks the picturesque
Wady Hammanah. Thence we run up and down the
left side of the Reno, where the road is built on arches
against inundations, and, after I hour 30 minutes
—which will stretch to two or three if you ride in a
one-horse voiture de place — we reach the little station
and village of Marzabotto. It is usually placed at
TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 109
27 kilometres from Bologna : Dennis (i. 35, 'Cities
and Cemeteries,' etc.) says fourteen English miles ;
but I hardly think that we travelled at the rate of
three leagues an hour. Here we find a decent
'osteria;' and we enjoy all the civility and cordiality,
the good cooking, and the comfortable ingleside, com-
bined with the moderate charges which characterise
such places in the byways of Italy.
The bran-new Villa, with its single tall tower on
the hill overlooking Marzabotto, belongs to the Aria
family, now Counts of the Italian kingdom. The
site has been known to Etruscologists for some
years. As early as 1831 a number of bronze
statuettes and other important objects attracted the
attention of Micali (' Monument. Inediti,' p. 115, pi.
xviii.). In 1850, again, other antiquities came to light,
but they were readily dispersed. About 1862 systema-
tic research was begun by the father of the present
owner, the late Cav. Pompeo Aria, who died in May
1874 at the fine age of eighty-five. It is a thousand
pities that he had not more sentiment of archaeology
than to build up the old stones in his new house ;
and that he did not employ more competent investi-
gators than the rude men who superintended the
works. On the other hand he was fortunate in
i io THE ABODES OF MAN.
persuading Count Gozzadini to overlook part of the
excavations ; and he wisely printed and published at
his own expense two illustrated brochures by his
learned friend. These are entitled ' Di una antica
Necropoli in Marzabotto,' &c. (20 figs., 1865), and
'Di ulteriori scoperte,' &c. (17 figs., 1870). The two
large quartos (Fava e Garagnani), followed by ' Ren-
seignements sur une ancienne Necropole a Marza-
botto,' 1871 — a brochure for the use of the Anthropo-
logical Congress — have been noticed by a host of
foreign writers. The Villa contains on the first floor
a fine collection, of which the earlier discoveries are
noticed by Count Gozzadini (p. 17, ' Di alcuni Se-
polcri,' &c., and pp. 9-17 of the ' Renseignements ') ;
and the town-house has, we are told, another. Unfor-
tunately, when Count Aria goes to Rome he takes his
keys with him, and, perhaps, the less a stranger sees
of the ' fattore, fatto re,' Giacomo Benni, a ' lewd
fellow of the baser sort,' the better for the temper of
both ' parties.'
The site of this Etruscan city, whose name, unless
embalmed in the modern Misanello and Misano, has
utterly perished, requires careful study. Count Goz-
zadini's plan is old, and it wants a profile and section
of the ground ; but there is nothing better to offer,
TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. in
nor will there be until Cav. Zannoni has published
his valuable volume.
Here the swift and brawling Reno, flowing from
the south-west, forms a loop, with the long diameter
A, Misanello. B, The Campuccelliera tombs, c, Morello tombs. D, High street and road.
E, E, Prolongation of the ancient city now washed away by the Reno. M, Misano.
x, Cross street to the east, y, Cross street to the west.
facing to the south-east, and then bends to the
north and north-east. At the most important point
it hugs the left bank, a perpendicular of friable ma-
terials, at least 80 feet high ; and thus it flows round
112 THE ABODES OF MAN.
three sides of the wedge-shaped projection, which
measures 700 yards in length by 350 of average
breadth. This area, of 245,000 square yards( = 5O'62
acres), has two distinct levels ; the upper, which sup -
ports Misanello, is the oldest part of the river-site,
backed by the hills forming its bank. The lower
(Misano) is a flat ledge, the raised side of the
present river.
We begin by visiting Misanello. Passing through
the cour d'honneur and the southern gate of the
Villa Aria, we walk a few yards along a broad
gravelled walk, dividing the garden, to a newly-
built pillar ; and we regret to see that these ' modern
enrichments' almost equal in number the old re-
mains. It records the names of Aria and Gozzadini,
with the date MDCCCLX. ; and it bears on one side
(V)MRVS — probably a family name, which some have
hastily connected with the Umbrians — and on the
other AKIVS. Both are in Etruscan characters ; they
were found upon fragments of tiles, and a third
inscription was yielded by a fibula. Beyond it
begin the ruins, and here we at once enter upon
debated ground. Count Gozzadini, followed by
Prof. Count J. Conestabile and others, sees a
necropolis ; the Abbe G. Chierici and Cav. Zannoni
TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 113
detect the abodes of the living, not of the dead.
The foundations of the dry walls are water-rolled
pebbles, varying from 1*40 metre (=4 feet 7 inches)
to two metres in thickness. Upon these is laid the
opus guadratum, of dimensions considerably smaller,
and seldom exceeding two courses. The coarse
calcareo-marly stone — according to the guide, an
intelligent gardener — is still quarried in the Virgata
Valley, some five or six miles up stream, and we
shall find that it is nearly the only material used.
The proprietor is entitled to our gratitude for the
precaution of defending the old walls from Apennine
weather by loose tiles, which can readily be removed
on gala days. The numerous water-pipes, tubes
hollowed in cubes of stone, an industry still ex-
tending from Trieste to Recoaro, suggest, as in
Palmyra, the utilisation of rain. And now we come
upon what appears to be distinctly the foundation, a
house with a compluvium and a central cistern. I
offer the following rude sketch, made upon the spot.
The central well is fed by pipes, and the cavcedium,
the patio (Arabic 'bathah') of modern Iberia, is sur-
rounded by a corridor, upon which the rooms and
bed-chambers opened. We can restore the frontage
of the Etruscan house with the aid of a basso-rilievo
114
THE ABODES OF MAN.
in the Museum of Florence. It shows two figures,
the one sitting, the other standing, backed by a door-
way and two flanking windows, the latter of double
r\
L_
CAV/EDIUM
DISPLUVIATUM
J gfo. Iff*. I
I
a, Main entrance to Atrium, b, 5 steps to Cavaedium platform, c, The Cavaedium, 15 feet
square, d, The cistern (impluvium). e-l, The rooms.
lights, and provided, like the Egyptian, with a
square-headed and overhanging lintel, or rather cap-
ping of stone : this feature may be compared with
the rod-moulded door in Dennis (i.
233) ; his sketch, however, has panels
recessed one within the other, perhaps
suggesting the idea of a perspective.
Of our Etruscan house at Misanello Count Gozza-
dini writes (' Renseignements,' p. 8) : ' Un de ces
puits s'eleve sur 1'ancienne surface de la necropole par
un rectangle de quatre metres 36' de large (=14 feet
3-65 inches), et de i metre 20' (= 3 feet n inches)
de haut, bati en grosses pierres et en moellons a sec.
TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MfSANO. 115
II y a des degres ' (five can still be counted) ' pour y
monter, comme dans les tombeaux de Castel d'Asso
dans 1'Etrurie moyenne, peut-etre pour aller celebrer
sur le defunt des silicernes annuels.' With this
conclusion we simply join issue.
The wells — which, with the two at the Certosa,1
number twenty-seven — have again given rise to a
long debate. We will begin by dividing them into
Round-bottomed Well.
two kinds, the round-bottomed, and the pointed like
the amphora. The average depth varies from
2'io metres ( = 6 feet 10*68 inches) to 10*25 metres
1 In the Certosa wells the bodies, as has been said, were burnt.
I 2
n6
THE ABODES OF MAN.
(=33 feet 7*54 inches). The most remarkable is
seen in section upon the lower or Misano level, cut
by the modern Pistoja road, which took the place
of the highway on an upper gradient. It is well
preserved; still fed by drainage, and said to be 16
metres (=52 feet 5*92 inches) deep : no corpses were
found in it. The orifice varies from 30 centimetres
Sharp-bottomed Well.
( =11*8 1 inches) to 77, and even 80 ( = 30*31 to
31*50 inches), abolishing the theory which makes
the mouth too narrow to admit a human being, and
suggesting, consequently, that the walls had been
built up around the remains. In all cases there
TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MIS A NO. 117
is a revetment of mortarless pebbles, allowing
percolation, whilst the bottom is sunk, to prevent
loss, into the impermeable clay which we remarked
at Casalecchio.
These so-called puits funtraires, ' which would
be a unique feature of Etruria,' 1 were found to
contain bronze vases and rings, ceramic tablets —
one inscribed with a single name — pottery, and
painted urns, with several strata of bones, chiefly
of sheep and goats, pigs and dogs. According to
Prof. Count J. Conestabile ('Congres,' p. 257), but
upon what authority I know not, ' from one to three
human bodies were found in them, sometimes in the
raised and doubled position, as shown by certain
tombs of the Stone Age. They were surrounded
by pebbles, which also underlay the head, probably
for protection ; whilst in the lower part and under
the skeleton there was generally a large urn.'
Similar constructions have been found in Savoy and
in Transalpine Gaul, especially at Troussepoil, Beau-
gency, Villeneuve-le-Roi, Trigueres, and Gourge.
According to M. Quicherat this custom began, not
during Gallic autonomy, but only after the Roman
1 This was asserted by Prof. Conestabile at the Congress, but it is
by no means the case, as will presently appear.
ii8 THE ABODES OF MAN.
conquest. In Middle Etruria, Dennis (i. 121) at
first believed them to be ' silos,' the ' sili ' of Sicily,
and the a-sipoi or a-ipoi of the Cappadocian and
Thracian Greeks, but he presently ' had not the
smallest doubt of their sepulchral character.'
I find it easier to believe either that a similar
form was superstitiously used for the sepulchre and
for secular purposes, or that these were simply
cisterns and ' silos ' proper, into which skeletons
and other articles have been thrown, perhaps during
the sack of the settlement. If Misanello be a
village they cannot be funerary ; and, at any rate, the
way in which they are scattered over the lower
level (Misano) instead of being aligned, like all other
Etruscan sepulchres, along the main roads, is a
strong argument in disfavour of the sepulchral
theory which is now generally waxing obsolete.
We presently reach a feature even more interest-
ing. Count Gozzadini tells us (loc. cit. p. 9) : ' Une
tombe, bien plus remarquable et bien plus grandiose,
mesure 10 metres de longueur sur chaque cote, sans
compter un avant-corps avec degres ' (five also here
visible), ' lesquels auront servi au m£me usage que
ceux du puits funeraire, c'est a dire a monter pour
celebrer les silicernes annuels. II ne reste de cette
TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 119
tombe que le soubassement de tuf, opere quadrato,
de i metre 19' (= 46*85 inches) de haut, de style
Toscane severe, bien sculpte, et correspondant a
celui de semblables monuments sepulcraux de
1'Etrurie moyenne, et notamment de Vulci, de
Caere, de Alsio, et de Tarquinii, qui cependant en
different par ce quits sont circulaires! *
But the latter is an essential difference. At first
sight I recognised a temple, an cedicula in antis, and
I was pleased to find that the same idea had oc-
curred to Cav. Zannoni and to the Abbe G. Chierici.
We cannot forget that a modern author, whose
Etruscan vagaries will be alluded to in a future
page, absolutely asserts2 the non-existence of Etrus-
can temples, despite the ' Fanum Voltumnae ' of
1 The italics are mine.
2 What can we make of parallel passages like these ? —
' There are reasons to be- ' There is not a vestige left of
lieve that there were temples in a single Etruscan temple, or of a
some of the Etruscan cities ' single Etruscan palace. Their
(p. 49). constructive powers and the re-
sources of their decorative arts
were lavished on their tombs '
(p. 41).
Nor can I see by what right Mr. Isaac Taylor declares (p. 326) that
' the Fanum Voltumnae was not a temple.' Its identification with the
cemetery of Castel d' Asso or Castellaccio has been questioned by
Dennis (i. 239), who shows some reasons for preferring Viterbo (i. 196)
and its church of Sta. Maria in Volturna.
120 THE ABODES OF MAN.
Livy (iv. 23, &c.), where the deputies of the
Federation met, and the express statement of
Servius (ad ALneid, i. 422) that every city of
Etruria, 'genetrix et mater superstitionis,' had its
threefold temple — outside, not inside, the walls —
lodging the Triad, Jove, Juno, and Minerva, whence
the triple shrine of the Roman Capitol (Dennis,
i. 520).
The most careful excavations in this platform
failed to produce any trace of human remains.
The following is Cav. Zannoni's rough restoration
of this highly-interesting building. The direction
of the long walls is from north to south ; and
the steps show the entrance. The podium sup-
ported four monoliths, truncated columns, of which
some were found with socket-holes, probably to
hold wooden pillars. Vitruvius (iv. 7) represents
the epistylia to have been wooden ; hence the
broader intercolumnations than in the Greek orders,
and hence, probably, the reason why none of the
temples are standing. We have remarked that the
system is not yet wholly obsolete at modern Bo-
logna : a house in the Via Maggiore, close to the
two great Leaning Towers, still preserves the old
Etruscanism ; but this survival is about to be ' im-
TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 121
proved off.' The posts supported architrave and
cornice ; there was, probably, a tympanum with cen-
tral light, possibly with sculptured figures ; and a
TEMPLE OF MISANELLO RESTORED.
Profile of the base still existing.
Height of base 3 feet io'8s inches.
sloping roof is denoted by the find of many large
tiles and antefixae. These civilised ornaments,
hiding the ends of the joint-tiles, number 1 10,
122 THE ABODES OF MAN.
suggesting that they were also equally applied to
sacred and profane buildings, sepulchres, or houses.
Some are plain ; others are encaustic with human
heads in demi-relief; and a few are decorated
with graceful palmlets raised and coloured.
Prolonging our walk for a few yards with an
easterly bend where the ancient river-bank slopes to
a lower level, we find another modern building in-
scribed ' Sorgente Etrusco,' from a relic which has
been unwisely removed. Beyond it a bran-new
obelisk — single, as usual, for greater disgrace — bears
the name of Prince Humbert, President of the fifth
Anthropological Congress, and the date of his visit
(October 5, 1871). The base shows at the four
angles as many archaic rams' heads, with the profiled
eye drawn, after the Egyptian fashion, as if fronting
the spectator.1 They are copied from a colonnette
1 My venerable friend Prof. Owen (Journal of the Anthro. Insti-
tute, p. 244, vol. iv., no. I., April — July, 1874) explains the 'elongate,
deeply-fringed, almond-shaped eye-aperture' of the Egyptian Middle
Empire by the effects of solar glare and sandy khamsin contracting the
winker-muscle (orbicularis palpebraruni}. The strong action of this
muscle, whose rixed point of attachment is to the inner side of the orbit
rim, a little below its equator, would draw the line of the eyelids ob-
liquely downwards and inwards. Hence, in artistic work, the slight
exaggeration of the rim of the outer and the dip of the inner canthus.
The law once passed in so hieratic a country would become unalterable
for all time, and it would naturally extend from the human eye to all
eyes.
TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 123
in the Aria collection ; and the local theory is ' qu'ils
semblent se rapporter au culte de Amon-ra.'
Beyond the obelisk lies the original Etruscan
aqueduct of Misanello, said to have been found
30 metres (?) below the surface. There is a central
reservoir of hollowed stone, and three cut conduits
sufficed, as the fourth would have led up-hill : more-
over, in the latter direction there is a perennial pond,
which may date from Etruscan days. All are large
parallelopipedons of squared tufa. Upon the slopes
head-stone shaped boards, marked and numbered,
show where the sarcophagi were exhumed. The
graveyard is thus sharply demarked from the town,
which lay upon a higher level. The general as-
pect at once suggests that Misanello is the arx or
acropolis, probably an older foundation than Misano.
It has its temple, its aqueduct, and its necropolis — in
fact, all the requisites of its social life.
During the visit of the Congress three tombs,
opened for the first time, yielded the skeletons of a
woman, round whose arm-bone ran a bracelet, and
that of a man armed with a sword. Concerning the
general collection we will speak afterwards ; here,
however, was made the discovery of the admirable
group and the amphora-bearing negro preserved in
124
THE ABODES OF MAN.
the Aria Museum. The warrior-god, armed with
a casque, whose front suggests the horns of Moses,1
is offered a ritual patera, possibly for libations, by
the Diva potens Cypri, whose raiment, after the old
Italic fashion, decently and decorously descends to
her feet.2 This group is 15 centimetres (= some 6
1 Dennis (ii. 105) notices a warrior-figure, more than a foot high,
whose ' helmet has a straight cockade on each side, almost like asses'
ears.'
2 Similarly the discoveries in Cyprus by General di Cesnola and
Mr. Lang are remarkable for the modesty and even ' respectability ' of
TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 125
inches) high, and its evident imitation and adapta-
tion of Greek art renders it most valuable. The
negro is also no mean work. Prof. Count J. Cones-
tabile declares that in it ' 1'imi-
tation du vrai est absolument
obtenue d'une maniere magis-
trale.'
Near an ignoble pond rises
a tall bronze group of Mars and
Venus, a modern enlargement of
that found in the sarcophagus.
There are also sundry modern
antiquities scattered about the
ground ; and a third pool, sup-
plied by a spring from above,
here concludes the visitanda. Descending to the
plane of the present bank we reach the second
lakelet, an artificial water a few yards in diameter,
also fed from the upper heights. A central pile
of old stones forms a ' cavern/ which can be ap-
proached by a boat or by a bridge with wooden
rails, painted to resemble bamboo — the whole in
most approved cockney style. Here are the sarco-
the statuary and the reliefs, where the reverse might have been ex-
pected.
126 THE ABODES OF MAN.
phagi removed from Misanello. They are upon the
surface, not sunk in it, as was the invariable custom
— this is, perhaps, a necessary evil, in order to display
them without the necessity of digging out a large
area of ground. But the tombs have been disposed
pell-mell, without any regard for orientation, and,
worse still, the pieces have been put together in the
wildest way. Thus the columns belonging to other
buildings have been planted where the pent-shaped lid
of the sarcophagus positively forbade such ornamenta-
tion. As might have been expected, many a casual
visitor has carried away the impression that we have
here the origin of our truncated columns placed upon
gravestones, and thus the Congres (p. 225) actually
sketches '1'ancienne necropole de Marzabotto' on
the borders of the lake. The
effect is something of this kind,
and it forcibly suggests Pere La
Chaise, with its gravelled walks
and trim hedges.
Of the spheroids and lenti-
cular masses I shall speak in
another place — they at least belong to the tombs.
We now leave the handsome eastern gates of
the park, and proceed south-eastward to the farm-
TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MIS AN O. 127
buildings of Misano (fundus Missanus or Mtsanus).
Thence the path, bending southwards, spans vine-
yards and wheat-fields, which were ankle-deep in
mud after the rainy morning of the Anthropological
visit. Here are three of the old pebble-built rain-
cisterns, two to the east and one to the west. We
are, doubtless, treading over the burial-place of the
old city, and the whole ' podere ' should be bought
by the State and thoroughly explored. Cav.
Zannoni would restore the form as above. It occu-
pied the isthmus formed by the Reno — a site which
128
THE ABODES OF MAN.
the Etruscans seem always to have chosen when
possible. The shape was probably polyangular,
not square ; but the interior, we shall see, pre-
serves the ritualistic form, oriented towards the
cardinal points. The general style of single-arched
gateway may be restored after this fashion, as three
THE GATEWAY RESTORED.
Bossed and draughted stones.
layers of bossed stones have been found in situ.
The cuneiform system was apparently well known,
and we may believe that the early Romans borrowed
it, like the paved road, from the Etruscans. The
TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 129
flat cuneiform arch (Dennis, i. 201) is essentially
Eastern. I found it in the ruined cities of the
Hauran, and traced it through Diocletian's Palace
(Spalato), to the Castle of Kirkwall. The official
city had, doubtless, large suburbs extending all
around it.
A glance up-stream discloses a noble Apennine
view, but we forget it in sorrow for the ravages of
the Reno, which is still in the habit of shifting its
thalweg. By prolonging the chief lines of inter-
secting street and road, we see that a large and
important section of the southern and western
enceinte, possibly half the city, has been eaten away
and engulfed in the wild torrent. The latter, of
course, has sunk many yards below the level of the
Etruscan days.
The first remains to the west are pebble founda-
tions of square and oriented cells, which have
provoked abundant discussion. Count Gozzadini
(' Congres,' p. 278), gallantly owning that he will be
glad to find himself in error, denies that they can
be huts (casupoli], for a variety of reasons, which, in
my humble opinion, do not appear convincing. He
objects to the small size of some cells, not exceeding
175 metre (= 68-90 inches) in length, by 1-50 metre
K
130 THE ABODES OF MAN.
(= 59*05 inches); but how many a Hindu hut,
Buddhist Vihara (monastery), and the lodgings in
Sepoys' ' Lines ' are not larger. And again, why
should not the smaller divisions have been com-
partments ? The depth of the foundation, a few
centimetres below the pebble pavement, would not
bear stable house-walls ; but again, why should
these not have been partitions (intercapedines) ?
Three arguments are drawn from the presence of
' funerary wells,' but this use of the silo is not
proven. Pieces of pottery, like those taken from
sepulchres, were found both in the cells and in the
wells ; but may they not also have been imbrices for
roofs and other purposes ? Finally, there were no
passages from cell to cell. I believe that they have
since been discovered : moreover, the walls are
mostly rased to their bases, and would not show the
threshold which, some two feet high, is still preserved
in the abominable town called Bonny (West Africa).
Professor Conestabile hesitates about delivering
a definitive opinion. On the other hand, the Abbe
G. Chierici offers the serious objection that in exca-
vations opened to the extent of 100 square metres,
the broken bones of animals appeared in abund-
ance, whilst those of human beings were utterly or,
TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 131
some say, comparatively, absent. The remaining ob-
jects : a long iron sword 1 and scabbard, votive arms
and legs, idols, an as rude, bronze and iron frag-
ments, tiles and pottery, broken urns, bits of coloured
glass, worked stones and bones, might have be-
longed to a settlement of the living as well as to a
city of the dead. The tubes for conducting water,
and the little clay windows admitting light into the
roof, denote huts, not tombs : again, the situation as
regards the ' High Street,' from north to south, would
suggest that this space was included within the walls.
The Abbe notices the remarkable likeness of the
pebble foundations with the pre-historic, bronze-aged,
terramare, or pile-villages of Reggio, Modena, and
other parts of Italy.2 Remarking that under the
1 This blade, which is much longer than the usual bronze weapon,
and lacks cross-piece, together with the iron lance-head, large and
willow-leaf shaped, were deposited in the Aria Museum, and excited
some discussion. M. Desor refers to the lances which Diodorus
Siculus placed in the hands of the Gauls, and like M. de Mortillet, com-
pares both weapons with those which had been found at La Tene, on
the battle-field of Tiefenau, and other places. Prof. Conestabile re-
plies that similar swords have been exhumed in Central Etruria.
Presently a sufficient collection of facts will enable us to determine
how far Etruscan art, original or imitated, may have extended north
of the Alps.
2 They are described in the Congrh (pp. 171-180). Older writers
held them to be ' Ustrina,' as if the dead were burned in water. Ac-
cording to the Abbe G. Chierici, the six terramare of Reggio, espe-
cially Sanpolo, the typical specimen which yielded articles of iron,
K 2
132 THE ABODES GF MAN.
pavement of Etruscan Misano a second stratum
appears at the depth of 070 metre (=2 feet 4*59
inches), and supports passages and houses with walls
of clay, still bearing the tubular impressions of rushes,
and wanting the bricks, the tiles, and the pottery so
common in the more civilised successor, he would
detect a still older settlement ; in fact, the first
colony of settled Etruscans who established them-
selves on the champ rase before walled villages were
invented.
From the pebble-cells, a few paces to the east
lead us across a hollow ; it was intended as a cutting
for the railway, which now runs in the Galleria di
Misano, a tunnel below. Here we find a truly
magnificent remnant of the ' High Street,' trending
from north to south, and probably meeting its eastern
and western intersector in the space beneath which
the Reno at present rolls. Seeing this fragment, we
can easily understand that the Romans borrowed
their paved roads, like their monuments, from the
Etruscans. These were the Plateae, Cardinalis and
had square and oriented constructions of pebbles and also ' funerary
wells ' ; they overlie the more ancient, bronze-aged pile-villages. He
adds an illustration of Castellarano (Congrts, p. 285). In Italy the
terramara or mariera is considered the third stage of the proto-
historic habitation, preceded by the cavern, and the/a/tf/?/te, or pile-
village proper.
TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 133
Decumana, which divided the city into quarters and
regions, and which led to the Portse Decumanae,
where the loth Cohorts camped. A length of 300
(380 ?) metres has been opened, but of this only
some 1 20 feet remain for inspection. The breadth
of the thoroughfare is 14 metres, and the largest
slabs, which are mixed with pebbles, exceed a
square yard. The pavement shows no ruts, as if
the biga were confined to the outside of the enceinte
— still the rule in many Dalmatian cities. The
broad central line is flanked by crepidines, path-
ways on either side, the conveniences so common in
Roman ' High Streets ;' and suggesting, as at Salona
and Damascus, triple gateways to the north and
south ; perhaps to the east and west. The deep
flank-drains have orifices to gather the rain-water,
and the middle is scientifically bombe". The two
bands of large, square detached blocks which, dis-
posed at regular intervals, run across the road, and
determine the trottoirs, are usually explained as
the cippi used for mounting horses when stirrups
were unknown ; and others remark that the spaces
allowed the passage of carriage wheels — where no
ruts are to be found. I would look upon them
as the succedanea for bridges in muddy weather,
I34 THE ABODES OF MAN.
resembling on a grand scale those of ancient Pompeii,
and the modern cities of the nearer East. The
same kind of ' unbuilded, unarched bridges ' are still
remarked by visitors to Albanian Skodra.
From this noble Platea Cardinalis, or Grande
Rue, a single line of secondary thoroughfare sets off
at a right angle to the west ; only a few feet now
remain unburied. The fragment is ten feet broad,
and in the middle appears a flag-covered conduit,1
like those now existing in all the older Veneto-
Istrian towns, Muggia and Capodistria, for instance.
The modern fashion came from the ' Sea-Cybele,'
and it extended south as far as Albania. The
Eastern cross-street, of the same dimensions as
the High Street (14 metres), which led south to the
Morello tombs, and which, prolonged, would in-
tersect the main line in the Reno bed, has been
re-interred. I am not aware that any of the vici, or
smaller thoroughfares, have yet been uncovered.
And here I would utterly reject the theory of
Count Gozzadini (' Renseignements,' p. 7) : ' Ce ne
pourraient etre non plus les rues d'une ville tres-
antique, les deux grandes espaces, ou avenues, de 14
metres de largeur, qui semblent couper la necropole
1 I cannot be quite sure of this feature.
TO MARZABOJTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 135
dans la direction des points cardinaux ; car on ne
peut pas supposer qu'une ville, aussi ancienne que
celle-ci, eut des rues aussi spacieuses et aussi bien
alignees. De telles avenues seraient au contraire fort
propres a faire des grandes divisions dans la necro-
pole, et a y donner acces ; comme cela a lieu dans
les champs cimeteriaux actuels.' The state of the
arts at Misano disproves this conclusion.
From the High Street, a hundred yards to the
north with easting, leads to the cemetery of Misano,
which lying, of course, outside, defined the limits
of the enceinte. Excavations are continued, but
economy sometimes reduces the number of hands to
two. The sarcophagi are placed upon the surface,
so as to be in sight, and we can only hope that
they will remain in situ. This Misano cemetery, as
it is now called, shows a great variety of shapes and
sizes ; single and double, large-square and small-
square, long-broad and long-narrow. The lids fit
into rims sunk in the border of the caisson ; they
are pent-shaped, with a shallow elevation ; none of
them have columns, while spheres and disks of
sandstone, some of very large size, are everywhere
exhumed.
At the end of the visit we descended the path
I36 THE ABODES OF MAN.
down the stiff earth-cliff to the north-east, and fol-
lowed the leat taken from the Reno on the south-
east of the buried citv. This ' Canale del Molino '
0
formerly turned the wheel of a dwarf powder-manu-
factory ; the latter has been closed after sundry
explosions, some of which lodged human arms and
legs upon the poplar-trees of the adjacent avenue.
Close below the belvedere of the Aria farm-houses,
other monuments (Campuccelliera) have been found,
proving that the line of sepulchres was prolonged to
the north-east ; and although the now sunken Reno
is separated from the tall bank by an alluvial flat,
over which the railroad runs, we can see by the
water-lines, by the erosion, and by the dilapidation
of the tombs, that the stream once swung near, and
that even here there has been a considerable amount
of destruction.
137
SECTION IV.
CONCLUSIONS.
WE have now inspected the many objects rescued
from the kistvaen and the sarcophagus ; we have
visited the homes and the long homes of the Cir-
cumpadan Etrurians ; and we may venture upon a
little cautious generalisation.
The external shape of the sarcophagus at
Misanello and Misano is of two great varieties.
The first is the quadrangular coffin of tufa slabs,
numbering 4 to 6. The dimensions are, length
o'Qo metre (= 2 feet 11*43 inches) to 2*27 metres
138 THE ABODES OF MAN.
( = 7 feet, 5-37 inches) ; breadth, 0*57 metre
(= i foot IO'44 inches) to i'6o metre (= 5 feet 2^99
inches) ; height, 0*42 metre (= i foot 4^54 inches)
to 1*92 metre (=6 feet 3*59 inches) ; the thickness of
the walls is from 0*08 metre to 0^32 metre (= 3*15
inches to i foot o-6o inch) ; the cover is gene-
rally of one, sometimes of two pieces ; and though
flat roofs are mentioned, I saw only the pent-
shaped.
The second kind is surmounted by a heavy
weight, which, under the pressure of earth, has
often broken through the lid, and has been found
inside the tomb. The upper gradient was crowned
by a cut stone, supposed, like the horse-shoe, to
represent the Homeric c-^aa ; the material was
mostly macigno or sandstone grit, and water-rolled
CONCLUSIONS. 139
pebbles ; the shape was either spheroid or lenticular,
and, in some cases, the diameter reached four feet.
Prof. Conestabile (' Congres,' p. 255) mentions, as a
third variety of sarcophagus, rectangular bases and
truncated columns, which suggested to him the
phallic steles so common in the necropoles of Central
Etruria, but he apparently did not see them. He
also includes amongst sepulchres the pebble-lined
wells, the ' caisses formees avec de grandes tuiles a
couvercle, fa9onne en faite ' (coffins formed by the
large tegulce] ; the pebble-tumulus and kistvaen, and
the pebble foundations before alluded to.
Incineration has prevailed at Marzabotto. Only
three or four out of 1 70 contained the whole skele-
ton, which was supported by a quantity of marl and
pebbles, and the presence of these articles did not
appear accidental. The other contents were the <zs
(r2t.dc, etc.], of which each individual had at least one ;
pottery, statuettes, weapons, bronzes, fibula ', mirrors,
and a variety of gold ornaments. Almost all the
sarcophagi had been violated, but one, which had
remained intact, yielded no less than 57 objects of
the precious metal. Besides these, there were pietre
dure of fine cutting and archaic Etruscan gems, e. g.
the carnelian scarabseus, with a walking Minerva,
140 THE ABODES OF MAN.
cuirassed and winged ; the more advanced, as the
engraved quartz, showing the heifer lo stung by the
gadfly, and the pasto ' tumble bug ' representing a
tailed man contending against a fabulous monster
that stands before him. As usual, amber and bone-
dice were abundant, and so were the ossuaries, and
the vases of plain and painted pottery. The bones
picked up in the necropoles and the settlements are
determined by Professors Cornalia and Rutimeyer
to be those of the Ursiis arctos, the Cants
familiaris (and palustris ?), the Felis Cattus, the
Mus Rattus (?), the Equus Caballus (and A sinus ?),
the Sus pahistris (and Scrofa ferus ?), the Cervus
(Elaphus and Capreohis), the Ovis Aries, the Capra
hircus (with two other varieties), and the Bos bra-
chyceros. The birds are chiefly the Bufo vulgaris,
and the Gallus domesticus — this Indian bird sug"-
o
gesting by no means a remote date. The shells,
probably used for necklaces, are principally the
Pectunculus glycimeris (fossil) and the Cypr&a
tigris. So my friend, Professor, now Rector G.
Capellini, an ardent archaeologist, of whom more
presently, when exploring the cannibal Grotta del
Colombi, in the Island of Palmaria, found and figured
(plate 2, Fava e Garagnani, Bologna, 1873) a valve
CONCLUSIONS. 141
of the P. glycimeris, pierced near the apex, and a
Patella ccerulea, cut to form a ring.1
The essential difference between the systems of
sepulture in Northern and in Central Etruria, is
that, whilst the latter built in the interior of hills and
upon plateaux adjoining the towns, the former laid out
their graveyards in our modern style. Fortunately
for students, we have thus three great monumental
series, which cannot be considered to be of the same
date ; whilst certain crucial points of resemblance,
for instance, the form, the system, and the ornamenta-
tion of the bronze fibula, and, briefly, the great lines
of art, suggest the peoples to be of one race.
It is now given to us to trace how ' fortis Etruria
crevit.' Villanova and the Certosa belong to Fel-
sina, whilst Marzabotto stands grandly alone. The
greater antiquity of the first-named is proved by the
absence of statuettes ; except the feminine idol with
birds, the archaic horses, and the symbolical or
conventional mannikins, raised upon the surface of
1 Similar shells have been discovered in the Perigord Caves. Rector
Capellini also brought from the Pigeon Grot large quantities of Ostrcea
edulis, Natica millepunctaia, Murex trunculus, Trochus titrbinatus,
Colnmella rustica, Patella Lusitanica, Helix (nemoralis, and singu-
lata), an undetermined Triton, and a Dentalium not belonging to the
existing Mediterranean species. It was probably brought to Spezia,
like the Silex, from some part of Tuscany.
142 THE ABODES OF MAN.
an ossuary. The ornaments are chiefly meanders,
disks, concentric circles, crosses, or circles containing
crosses ; and animals, ducks, geese, and serpents.
There is no goldsmiths' work ; the only iron ar-
ticles are some few ornaments, several lance-points,
MANNIKINS.
two hatchets (?), knife-blades and shovels (?) ; and
we must remember that the first kings of Rome
were in the early iron epoch. Lead-alloy is also
wanting in the ess rude, which is of a ruder type than
that of its neighbours. At Villanova there are no
bas-reliefs, no inscriptions, no styli for writing ; and
the cyst-shaped ossuary of bronze is supported by
plain unpainted pottery, generally black, and pro-
vided with handles of various forms. Thus the
CONCLUSIONS. 143
Congress was enabled to date Villanova from the
ninth and even the tenth century B.C., synchronous
with the early Etruscan epoch, or at the end of the
bronze and the beginning of the iron age. The
study of this period has served as guide to a host of
sepulchral discoveries in Switzerland and Franche-
Comte".
The general aspect of the Certosa shows the
greatest splendour of Etruscan art, a progress and
development which would place it several centuries
later ; Cav. Zannoni assigns it to about the fourth
century of Rome. The bronze contains more lead,
and an ess grave, apparently an as of uncial weight,
would fix the date after u.c. 537 (B.C. 216), the year
in which a decree of the Republic reduced the
weight of an as to an ounce.
Marzabotto is the latest of the three. Here we
have three inscriptions, two on pottery and one on
a silver fibula, besides three bronze writing-^/y/z.
The alloys consist of a greater proportion of lead,
about 36 : 100. The ces rude\?> abundant; there is
a large rectangular piece, perhaps the ess signatum *
(first century of Rome), bearing the trident and
1 It weighs, according to Count Gozzadini (p. 13, ' Renseignements '
etc.), 2,157 grammes ( = 4 Ibs. 12 oz. avoir., 45-14 grs.), and conse-
quently exceeds by 367 grammes (= 1202. avoir., 454-52 grs.) the
144 THE ABODES OF MAN.
the caduceus ; while the as grave is wanting. Iron
is much more common at Marzabotto than at
Villanova, the articles being chiefly keys, bracelets,
lance-heads, blades and scabbards of long knives,
daggers, or swords. A Greek inscription upon
a fragment of pottery, (xa^)PTAION EnOIE^(sv),
proves an advanced commercial intercourse. The
fibula are often novel and beautiful : for instance,
one represents a pair of tweezers ; another, in
silver, has a double spiral, and the lower end
reverted, reminding M. G. de Mortillet of Gallic
objects in the Museum of St. Germain. The
metal might be considered rare, yet a hundred
such ' bijous ' have been found at Marzabotto.
Gold, as well as silver, becomes more abundant,
denoting ideas of luxury and a social condition
which could appreciate the value of the material
and the beauty of the work ; often, indeed, both
were combined. Of this fact the necklace and
the pendants, supposed to form part of a feminine
collar (torques], figured by Count Gozzadini (' Di
ulteriori scoperte a Marzabotto,' plate xvi., No. n,
a, b, c ; xvii., Nos. 2 and 3), are sufficient proofs.
heaviest specimen cited in Mommsen's Monetary History. The ess
rude weighed from 10 to 24 grammes ( = 16933 to 406-40 grs. avoir.)
and contained about 36 per cent, of lead.
CONCLUSIONS. 145
Finally, the bas-reliefs and statuary, numbering
about a hundred, enable us to compare the most
archaic style (Venus), shapelessness, disproportionate
limbs, unnatural length, rigidity, and drapery
adhering to the body, with that of the most ad-
vanced civilisation (Venus and Mars). Thus Prof.
Count Conestabile is of opinion that the necropolis
of Marzabotto was used for a considerable period
after the Boian and Lingonian invasion ; whilst the
Abb6 G. Chierici is of opinion that both Misanello
and Misano owe their destruction to those bar-
barians.
PART III.
THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
1 Nulli nota poetas
Ilia fuit tellus, jacuit sine carmine sacro.'
149
SECTION I.
THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
WE have now seen the arts and industry, the tem-
porary abodes and the eternal homes of the Circum
padan Etrurians : it remains only to interview what
is left of the man himself. Here, again, a short
preparatory course is advisable, a glance at the
early geological history of Italy, especially at the
central regions in their long career of adaptation
for humanity. The palseontological field has been
admirably worked by the writers of the Peninsula :
amongst them we may single out Senator Ponzi
(' Atti della R. Acad. dei Lincei, 1871,' and many
other publications), who offered to the Congress of
Bologna (pp. 49-72) a synoptic table and a rtsumt
of the five great periods belonging to the annals of
our kind. He shall tell his own tale of cataclysms
and convulsions, although modern belief prefers
attributing to the normal activity of the present
day, prolonged through unnumbered ages, what was
150
THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
formerly held to be the work of paroxysmal epochs.1
But the last of the catastrophists has not yet gone
his ways : the mantle of Murchison seems to have
fallen upon the shoulders of Prestwich.
I. The Lower Pliocene of the Tertiary Age, when
the nummulitic strata are being laid, is a period of
calm and of sub-tropical temperature, represented by
the calcareous formations of Macco. The presence
of Pliocene man in Italy is still disputed. Professor
Nicolucci, of whom more presently, would place
him in the centre of the Peninsula (' Congres,' p. 234).
The Jury of the Congress (p. 520) opines that man
existed during the uppermost Tertiary2 or the
1 The following table shows at a glance the four periods (A, B, C,
and D) of the greatest excentricity during the last million years ; and
the several glacial epochs which resulted from it : —
Years be-
fore A.D.
Excentricity
of Orbit.
Difference of
distance in
millions of
miles.
Winter days
in Excess.
Mean of
hottest month
in the latitude
of London.
Mean of
coldest month
in the latitude
of London.
D
1,000,000
'0151
2 '75
7 '3
83° F.
21° F.
(a
cl'
850,000
800,000
750,000
'0747
0*132
0-575
i3'5
2 '25
I0'5
36 '4
6-4
27 '8
126°
82°
113°
-7°
22°
o°'6 .
»{;
210,000
200,000
o'S75
0-567
I0'5
I0'25
27-8
27-7
"3°
"3°
o°'7
o°'9
A
10,000
'°473
8'5
23
105°
5°
'0168
3
8-1
84°
20°
2 Mr. Frank Calvert, of the Dardanelles, declares that he has
found traces of Miocene (Tertiary) man. From a cliff-face composed
HIS DATE. 151
oldest Quaternary or Post- Tertiary Age.1 In the
Newer Pliocene sub-division the sub-Apennine sea
beats upon the mountains, depositing yellow silex
in the shape of extensive sand-beds which, however,
Nicolucci would attribute to a later age. The
cold, presently extending from the Poles towards
the Equator, causes a general and secular, as op-
posed to a seasonal, emigration of the fauna both
from higher to lower latitudes, and from the
uplands to the netherlands.
II. Follows the Diluvial Epoch at the end of
the Tertiary period and at the opening of the
Post-Tertiary Age : it is synchronous in the Apen-
nines with the Alpine diluvium. The temperature,
falling still, produces terrible meteoric convulsions.
The condensation of vapours precipitates masses
of water in successive deluges and whirlpools, ac-
companied by incessant electrical discharges. The
of strata dating from that period, at a geological depth of 800 feet, he
' extracted a fragment of the joint of a bone of either a dinotherium or
a mastodon, on the convex sides of which is deeply incised the un-
mistakeable figure of a horned quadruped.' He also exhumed a
flint-flake and bones of animals longitudinally fractured, probably to
extract the marrow. The discovery has set at rest all the doubts of
Sir John Lubbock (Pre-historic Times] and M. L. Figuier (Primitive
Man}.
1 The term Pleistocene was proposed, on palaeontological grounds,
by Lyell, to demark beds later than the latest Tertiary, and older than
the deposits of the recent period.
152 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
resulting torrents sweep towards the ocean, which
still breaks against the Apennines, enormous burdens
of ddbris breached from the ancient rocks; and
thus thick beds of conglomerates, breccias, and
amygdaloids, showing the turmoil of the waters,
are deposited upon the yellow Tertiary sands. The
aspect of the Peninsula remains that of a com-
plicated archipelago, and the emerged lands are
covered, as their fossilised remnants prove, with
dense forests of oak, pine, and other tall trees.
The fauna continues to be the same, but the
tempests and deluges compel it to seek shelter in
the caves.
Primitive man, a nomad like his congeners,
doubtless occupied at this epoch the higher Apen-
nines, together with the elephant, rhinoceros, hip-
popotamus, cave-bear and hyaena, Bos primigenius,
hipparion, and Cervus elaphiis. The necessities of
offence and defence taught him -the use of stone
weapons ; and we can hardly be surprised that the
invention was not only anterior to history, but was
even unknown to the earliest legends. Suetonius
(' in Aug.* cap. 72) gives us an interesting detail
concerning the Caesar who may be called the Father
of proto-historic Anthropology : ' Sua vero ....
HIS BIRTH. 153
excoluit, rebusque vetustate, ac raritate notabilibus ;
qualia sunt Caprseis immanum belluarum, ferarum-
que membra praegrandia, qua dicuntur gigantum
ossa et arma heroum.' The italics show that the
Romans were not so ignorant of palaeontology. Al-
dovrandi ('Museum Metallicum': Bononise, 1648,
p. 600) calls the fossil sharks' teeth glossopetrce,
and tells us that others had termed the article ' lapi-
dem ceraunium, nempe fulminarem.'
The first undoubted evidence of Italian1 man
appears in the diluvial breccias and upon the Jani-
culan hill,2 at Acquatraversa, on the Via Cassia,
which yielded two silex-flakes. As the stone im-
plements are transported, it would, perhaps, be
logical to admit the possibility of their pre-existence
amongst the yellow Tertiary sands, but in these
they are yet to be found. The flints show all the
characteristics of the rudest palaeolithic age — the
archaeoliths of the Ponte Molle, the Tor di Quinto,
the Monte Sacro, and the Ponte Mammolo are the
best proofs. According to Professor W. Boyd-
1 I say ' Italian ' because Professor Busk has identified with the
human fibula a bone found in clay apparently pre-glacial — this would
be the earliest relic of the cave-man.
2 Ponzi, Sulle selci tagliati rinvenuti in Roma ad Acquatraversa e
Gianicolo : Bulletin of Cor r. Stient. of Rome, No. 3, vol. viii., 1870.
Cav. de' Rossi expresses his doubts (Congres, pp. 452-3).
154 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
Dawkins ('Cave-hunting,' etc.) these ancientest
types of hunting and fishing gear have left their
representatives amongst the Eskimos, a people still
associated with the fauna of the older Pleistocene or
Stone Age, the reindeer and the musk-sheep.
III. After the Diluvial sets in the Glacial
Epoch, the second period of the Quaternary Age.
Under the ever - increasing cold the rains become
snows ; polar ice drifts towards the equator, and
the glaciers, Alpine and Apennine, deposit moraine
and angular erratic blocks upon the abundant con-
glomerates of the preceding period. The atmo-
spheric perturbation is accompanied by earthquakes,
which open the British and Saint George's Chan-
nels, the Straits of Gibraltar, and the Dardanelles ;
which sever Sicily from its mainland ; and which
form the Dalmatian Archipelago. Volcanoes, chiefly
sub-marine, begin to discharge lavas, mostly absent
from the previous formations. The sub-Apennine
shallows are gradually elevated into dry land, com-
pelling the Arno to change its course : Monte
Pisano sinks, and the central Italian Archipelago
becomes a great gulf, in the midst of which
the craters of Bolsena, Viterbo, and Bracciano,
linearly disposed from north-west to south-east,
HIS MISERIES. 155
vomit the palseo-plutonic tuffs which, in the Roman
Campagna and the adjacent parts, overlie the dilu-
vian breccias. The subaerial eruptions partially
arrest glacier formation in the Apennines, and allow
erratic blocks to be carried beyond the limits of the
ice which had stunted and withered the flora, and
which had scattered mountain and plain with the
corpses of the fauna. A mere remnant of the latter
saves itself by emigration ; and man, in the acme
of his misery, is not wholly destroyed by cold and
hunger, those implacable enemies of all life. Wan-
dering in search of shelter he, also, descends to
the sub-Apennine hills, and he seeks the calori-
ferous centres where the radiation of plutonian heat
defends him against the rigours of the secular
winter. His remains are shown in the worked
flakes of silex yielded by the volcanic tuffs of the
Campagna di Roma. Shell-implements, carefully cut
or chipped, and pierced with a hole for suspension —
in fact, knives — have lately been discovered in a dilu-
vial grotto near Les Corbieres, on the top of a moun-
tain overhanging the Padern village. This novel fact
also suggests that the Rousillon plains from Per-
pignan to near Estagel once formed part of the sea.
IV. During the A Ihivial Epoch, the third period
156 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
of the Quatenary Age, the cold diminishes, the
glaciers shrink towards their former limits, the atmo-
spheric convulsions and the eruptions, both submarine
and subaerial, are gradually extinguished ; and
the sun, piercing the dark fogs and vapours, vivifies
and awakens nature. The sea-bottoms, strewn with
volcanic deposits, become dry land, and the great
river-valleys begin to assume their actual profiles.
The fusion of the retreating ice and snow, coursing
in immense torrents, transporting vast masses of
abraded matter, resetting their sides with travertine,
and lining their soles with sand, with river-
drift, fluvial conglomerates and huge water-rolled
blocks, forms deep ravines, and traces broad beds,
especially upon the newly-born plains. This action
is still distinctly marked in the valleys of the Arno,
the Anio and, to mention no others, the Tiber. With
the increment of heat there is a counter emigration
on a small scale, the remnants of the fauna and
flora return to their former seats, whose temperature,
however, is still below that of its former average,
while the isotherms occasion another geographical
distribution of organic beings. A new vegetation
supplies abundant food to the animal creation, and
man, who has escaped the horrors of the diluvial
HIS EARLIEST REMAINS. 157
and the glacial epochs, quits the mountains and
begins to inhabit the plains.
The variety of silex-implements, arrow and
lance heads, knives, and axes, preserved in the strata
of vegetable earth immediately overlying the oldest
volcanic tuffs, proves that, during the alluvial epoch,
the palaeolithic began to merge into the neolithic
age. Signs of civilisation appear in bone (C.
elapkns) handles, and in fragments of pottery —
' sibi primum fecit agrestis pocula.' The quantities
of stone weapons found, for instance, at Inviolatella 1
(Campagna di Roma), suggests that these neolithic
cave-men — according to some, the earliest Aryan
immigrants, who introduced the dog, the goat, the
sheep, and the long-fronted bull — either had their
manufactories or fought their battles there. To this
the Jury (' Congres,' p. 513) would attribute the
Olmo Calvaria, a calotte found incrusted with
several centimetres of travertino. At this period
the Bosprimigenius, the elephant, and the rhinoceros
(tichorrJiinos] were still in the land, showing climac-
teric conditions which differ from the modern (?).
1 Ponzi : Sui manufatti di focaja rinvenuti all' Inviolatella, etc.
Accad. pontif. dei nuovi Lincei. Sess. i, 2 die. 1866. De' Rossi:
Rapporto sugli studi, etc., nel bacino della campagna Romana. Ann. de
1'Inst. de cor. arch,, vol. xxxix.
158 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
Moreover, it is remarked in Italy that weapons of
the second Stone Age outside the stratifications of
the great rivers, prove that these had abandoned
their gigantic primitive beds. De' Rossi disinterred
silex and lava instruments, neolithic arrows, as well
as archseoliths, upon the flanks of the great Latial
Cone ; and in 1866 he made, near the Anio, above
Cantelupo (formerly of the y£qui), on the Via
Valeria at the mouth of the Ustica valley, which
discharges the Digentia rivulet of Horace, the re-
markable discovery of regular sepulchres. Two sets
of crypts or small galleries, at an upper and lower
horizon, hollowed in the travertino which had been
left dry by the retreat of the Quaternary waters,
produced five intact skeletons, distinctly establishing
the existence, in the second Stone Age, of the two
forms of skull which are still found throughout Italy.
The adults of the higher sepulchre, one supine,
the other doubled for want of room, were bra-
chycephalic, and, though one was rachitic, both
appeared to belong to a short, broad race ; amongst
the many arrow-piles of grey silex and a fine knife,
interred with them, were a coarse and primitive
water-pot and a lance-head of fine quartz with ame-
thystine veins. The three underlying dolichocephalic
HE BUILDS CITIES. 159
skeletons, apparently of one family, showed much
more delicacy of texture. The bones were not un-
like those of modern man : there were neither arms,
nor fictiles, but around them and at their feet were
found remains, some worked, of the dog, horse,
ox, pig, Cervus elaphus, and perhaps the rein-
deer. The memory of the neolithic TTS'ASXUS was
long preserved by the Romans, who, in the Fecial
rite derived from the Equicolae, sacrificed the pig
with a stone hatchet, and it became the sign of
Thurs, the ' giant,' the third letter in the Runic
alphabet. Similarly the Jewish knife used in cir-
cumcision was probably a survival of older days.
The Hernician ('mountaineer' ?) valley especially
became the seat of a powerful and highly-civilised
race ; and, during the period of quiescence which
followed, Latium began to build cities.
During this alluvial epoch the ancient volcanoes
are closed by the elevation of the land, which some
call the retreat of the sea ; and other subaerial vents
open at Tichiena, Pofi, Callame, and other places
in the Hernician (Anagni) and Ciminian (Viterbo)
valleys. Hence the subterranean fire passes to
Latium proper, whose late development of civilisa-
tion was probably due to the long evolution of plu-
160 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
tonic disturbances. The Latin eruptions are usually
distributed into four successive eras, each separated
by periods of rest. The first raised the great Latial
Cone (Mons Latialis), with its central and apical
crater Artemisa, and its ring of auxiliary mouths,
represented by Nemi, Vallericcia, Laghetto, Valle
Marciana, Gabii, and others, discharging pyroxenic
lavas. The second movement appeared at the same
places after a period of calm, shown by fossils on the
volcano flanks — for instance, at Monte Cavo, which
resembles Vesuvius in the Somma Circle. To this
or to the subsequent division belongs the discovery
of bronze implements,1 and of stones which, like
the Jadeite found near the Sabine Sacco, but not
existing in Italy, argue the extension of commerce
and emigration.
This also is the period of monoliths, dolmens,
mortarless Cyclopean walls, and hydraulic works cut
in the rock ; and to it we must refer the legends of
Picus and Faunus, Saturn and Janus — ' those old
credulities to nature dear.1
The third eruptive era was apparently limited to
opening the Albano crater. It spread around it
1 We have the testimony of Lucretius that bronze was used before
iron ; the latter, moreover, was long prescribed in religious ceremonies —
for instance, of the Romans.
HIS MODERN EPOCH. 161
not vast lava-rivers, but lapilli, scoriae, and ashes,
which, converted by torrents of rain to a muddy
paste, were presently solidified into the volcanic
conglomerate known &$> peperino. Upon this foun-
dation Alba Longa was subsequently built, and
became the capital of the Latin race. At last the
craters were changed to rain-pools, and the Alluvial
Epoch ended with scattering lakes over the surface
of Latium. About this time lacustrine villages were
numerous. The Sabines occupied the lands beyond
the Anio, and the Etruscans settled north of the
Tiber.
V. During the Recent, or Modern, Epoch, fol-
lowing the Post-pleiocene, the temperature becomes
what it is now, and the rivers, the miserable rem-
nants of the alluvial giants, shrink to citnettes in their
huge beds. After many centuries of repose, the
fourth and last outbreak in Latium opens the little
vent of Monte Pila, on the edge of Monte Cavo.
The latter was still in eruption when Romulus was
laying the foundations of Rome: Livy (i. 31)
mentions, under the reign of the third King, a thick
shower of stones, and a heavenly voice sent from the
Albano Mount — a prodigy which required a nine-
days' festival. The comparatively modern date of
M
1 62 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
the convulsion is proved by the potteries, and even
the libral as grave, discovered, like the cinerary hut-
urns, under the volcanic pepenno. This movement
ended in earthquakes, which continue till our day,
and in the transference of volcanic tension to the
south, where it is now shown by the Phlegraean
Fields, Vesuvius, Stromboli, and Etna.
THE FOUR WA VES. 163
SECTION II.
THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
THE geological sketch of early Italy ended, I would
offer a few remarks concerning the successive im-
migrations into the Italian Peninsula which finally
brought the Etruscans — racial movements established
either by old traditions or by modern science,
especially craniology ; and carefully investigated by
later writers, especially by Pictet of Geneva, and
more recently by Schleicher and Conestabile. It is
beyond the scope of these pages to notice the great
Mongoloid (?) or Turanian (?) substratum — which
Prof. Hunfalvy would prudently call an- Aryan, and
which M. Thomas and his numerous school would
make superior in culture to the Aryan,1 every-
1 I will not attempt to resume the discussion about the origin of
' Aryan.' Some (older school) derive it simply from ar, the plough,
which seems to have originated in Bactria and Irdn ; others find many
Sanskrit and Zend roots, as arth, ridh, rh, and r, meaning noble,
worthy, rich, honoured. Again, the Zendavestan tradition assigns to
Thraetavna (Indra) three sons, Airya, Caizima (Shem ? ), and Tuirya
(Tur, Turan). Firdausi (loth century) makes the three races sons
of Furaydun, and his Pehlevi ' Irij ' (Airja) was the youngest but the
steadiest of all.
M 2
164 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
where met by the intruding family ; 1 or to enter
into the subject of the Basques, whom Dr. Broca,
despite their splendid type, moral as well as phy-
sical, would consider autochthonous, and whom Prince
Louis Lucien Bonaparte would make, with Hum-
boldt, Grimm, And, and Rask, remote kinsmen of the
modern Finns and Uralians. Nor will my list in
elude the modern Skipetar, Albanians whose origin
is still a mystery,2 the Gipsies from the Valley of
the Indus, and the Magyars, the latest flood which
the East poured into Europe.
Sogdiana and Bactriana — apparently the earliest
seats of settled life agriculture and comparative
civilisation — appear to have been the cradle of the
conquering race whose dispersion throughout the
furthest regions of the West was accomplished before
the tenth century B.C. ; and the following are the
four successive waves whose influx is admitted by
modern anthropologists : —
I. The Kelts first left the family home ; the
1 It is still uncertain whether the first neolithic cave-men were of
Iberian, Mongoloid, or Aryan stock.
3 Perhaps the most mysterious part of their language is the way
in which it explains the oldest Greek terms (Fallmerayer : das Albane
Elem. in Griechenland}. Plutarch says that ' swift-footed ' was 'Aore're
in the dialect of Epirus : it is still Chpdte in the tongue of the Tosks
or Southerns, and Shpe"te amongst the Gheghs or Northerns.
THE FOUR WAVES. 165
ethnologic law declaring those tribes to be the oldest
who have been driven to the extremities of conti-
nents:— the voice of all history is in favour of their
superior antiquity. They are supposed to have taken
the direction of ancient Hyrcania ; to have passed
south and west of the Caspian, as they planted
colonies in the Caucasian Albania and Iberia ; and
to have entered Europe, of course by land, via
the southern shores of the Black Sea and the
Danube Valley. Thence they spread westward far
and wide ; they occupied, in historical ages, Western
Austria, Northern Italy, the broad lands afterwards
called Gaul, the P.yrenean countries, and the British
Islands. This race is supposed to have brought
with it the neolithic Stone Age and its constant
accompaniment, pottery. We can hardly assign the
movement to a date later than thirty centuries B.C.1
II. The Aryo-Pelasgi are supposed to have emi-
grated either at the same time as, or shortly after, the
Kelts, and they followed the same line, by Ariana
and Parthia, but a little to the south ; this is shown
by their traces in Asia Minor and on the ^Egean, the
1 The wide extension of the race justifies Pelloutier (Hist, des
Celtes, p. 10), who, like the ' Ulster King-at-Arms ' (' Etruria Celtica'),
is generally ridiculed for seeing Kelts everywhere.
166 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
Hellespont, and Propontis, till, travelling by land, they
reached the Mediterranean shores, Greece, Thrace,
Illyria, and Italy, as far as the Alps, where they
mingled with the Keltic Gauls.1 This second emi-
gration would continue till the fifteenth century B.C,
III. The Scandinavo-Teuton appears much
later in history, which, of course, ignores his first
coming. The group may be divided into two dis-
tinct sections, the former being judged more ancient,
for the same reason as the Kelts, namely, having
been pushed further west by subsequent invaders ;
but the similarity, amounting almost to identity, of
physique, temperament, character, and even lan-
guage, shows them to be brothers rather than
cousins. They are supposed to have turned north
of the Aral Lake and the Caspian — the negative
proof being that there are no remains of them
to the south — to have extended over Scythia and
Sarmatia, the land of the Slavs, and to have en-
tered Europe via the upper Danube and the Rhine.
Hence they extended to the Baltic and to where the
North Cape prevented further progress. This was
1 Mr. Edward A. Freeman, judging from the similarity of the Latin
and Greek tongues, would make these cognate families of Aryans
* branch off from the original stock as one swarm (?) and part, most
probably, (?) at the head of the Adriatic Gulf.'
THE SLAVS. 167
the noble barbarian blood which overran the declin-
ing Roman Empire.
IV. The Lithuano-Slavs, the last great wave,
passed by Asiatic Sarmatia, crossed the Volga, and
occupied the eastern parts of the European Conti-
nent, where population was thinnest. Their ninety
millions still hold nearly half of it, being limited by a
meridional line, connecting the western extremities
of the Baltic with the Adriatic, bounding the Scandi-
navo-Teutons on the south and east, as these bound
the Kelts ; and they are preponderant in Old
Prussia, Lithuania, Russia and European Turkey; in
parts of Hungary ; in Bohemia, and in the Eastern
regions of Austria. As the Latin race is of the Past,
so the glories and triumphs in arts and arms await
the Future of the youngest member of the family — it
is, perhaps, the most interesting, when we think not of
what it has been, but of what it will be. This emigra-
tion appears in history about the third and fourth cen-
turies A.D. ; and the Sarmatian words, Hun, Geloni,
and Sciri, or Scirri, have given a terrible significance
to the modern Scythian. But we may fairly doubt this
movement of the Slavs. The learned Fortis has
detected not a few Slav roots in the names of regions
and cities preserved by the Roman biographers and
168 THE ETRUSCAN MAN,
historians of Dalmatia ; and the Eneti or Veneti
of the Baltic, who, distinct from the Euganeans,1
named Venice, and whom Mommsen suggests may
be Illyrians or Albanians, are still preserved in the
Wenden of adjoining Styria, popularly known as
Slovenes. This would denote the presence of the
Slavs in Southern Europe many centuries before the
date usually assigned to them : the question is
highly interesting, but here our business is with the
second, not the fourth, member of the family.
The first wave of the Aryo-Pelasgi may have
displaced the palaeolithic peoples to whom many
attribute such archaic titles of the Tiber as
Albula, Rumon, and Serra. These were the Fauns
and Satyrs, the Caci and Cyclopes, the nymphs and
dryads of a subsequent mythology : here we find the
terra filii, the aborigines of the classics,
Gensque virum truncis et duro robore natum.
The earliest families would be the lapyges of
Apulia ; the old Italian or Messapian coast, now the
Calabrias ; the Ausones and the Opici,2 Obsci, or Osci,
1 The brachy cephalic Euganeo- Veneti are generally reputed Illyrians
or Illyrio-Greeks (the brachycephalic Albanians ?). Grotefend (Zur
Geographic von Alt-Italien. Hanover, 1840-2) would derive the Italic
aborigines from Illyria — which, to say the least, is not proven.
8 Thucydides (vi. 2). On this Prof. Calori remarks : (loc. cit. p. 19)
THE ARYO-PELASGI. 169
who drove into Sicily the Siculi of Central Italy and
the other kindred tribes of Lucania and Campania
— in fact, those thrust into the extremities of the
Peninsula by subsequent invaders. They found the
mysterious Ligurians who occupied, not -only modern
Liguria as far south as the Tiber, but also the greater
part of Italy, and who apparently extended for con-
siderable distances northwards and north-westwards,
to parts of France and even into Spain. The Ligu-
rian type of brachycephalic skull is found, not only
in the Certosa, but at Torre della Maina in the
Modenese (Calori and Nicolucci : ' La stirpe Ligure
in Italia ne' tempi antichi e moderni.' Atti del'
Accad. delle Scienze di Napoli, i. 1865). The
author holds that this race, cognate with the Iberians
and the Siculi, occupied the greater part of Italy.
The second great influx is that of the Um-
brians and the Prisci Latini, forming the ' groupe
Italiote ' of Mommsen. The former rounding the
head of the Adriatic and penetrating into the
Apennines, occupied Tuscany (Dion. Hal. i. 19),
the region between the Alps and the Apennines — in
fact, the eastern lowlands of Italy. The Volsci,
' Per Opici non si devono intendere gli Oschi soli, ma i terrigeni od
originarii italici, da Ope terra.' Philistus in Dion. (i. 22) declares that
the occupants of Sicily were Ligurians, led by Siculus, son of Italus.
i;o THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
Samnites, and Sabines, the ,/Equi and Campani
(antiquissimus populus, Pliny and Florus) were
branches of this tree, and it can hardly date after the
twentieth century B.C. The Latins, who appeared
about the same time as, or a little after, the Umbri,
taking the westward line after leaving Lombardy,
established themselves on the occidental lowlands of
Latium, upon the basin of the Tiber, where the
marshes and lagoons of that age permitted, and
perhaps in Campania, the lands of the Opici.
These tribes, marching by land, must consequently
have passed through Venetia, Lombardy, Emilia,
and Romagna, doubtless leaving scattered settle-
ments en route, for the course of history was not so
regular as it appears on paper. All had a know-
ledge of metals, certainly of bronze, and, perhaps,
except the earliest, of iron : this fact we find in
the pre-historic terramare or mariere, the kitchen-
middens and the pile-villages.
The Umbro- Latins were shortly followed by the
earliest maritime emigration that of the Graeco-Pe-
lasgi, which poured into Italy via Arcadia, Thessaly,
and especially Epirus (Albania). They settled
themselves in Magna Graecia, containing lapygia
(Apulia), Italia Proper (the Calabrias), and CEnotria
THE PELASGO-TYRRHENIANS. 171
(Lucania). By degrees these three great groups,
marching over as many several routes to the
centre of the Italic Peninsula, conquered, by arts
rather than arms, the Ligurians, and the vividus
Umber, including his Sabine, Samnite, and other
kinsmen,1 together with the Prisci Latini ; extended
themselves into Tuscany and the Padan valley,
where their earliest settlement was known as Spina ;
and reduced to Pelasgian rule all the choicest
regions east of the modern Lamone or Santerno
River. Their empire, characterised by its Cyclopean
or Pelasgian constructions, must be held to begin
with the fifteenth or even the seventeenth century
B.C. ; and its decadence, which might have arisen from
cosmical causes, earthquakes and eruptions, is re-
lated by history with fables and supernaturalisms
which, superficially considered, have made the name
of Pelasgi sound quasi-mythical — ' like the knights-
errant of the Round Table.' And yet there is no
1 'Nam Umbria pars Tuscias est,' says Servius (ad dEn. xii. 753) ;
and Strabo (v. i) informs us that before Rome rose to power the
Umbri and the Tyrrheni fought for supremacy. Pliny (iii. 8) tells us :
'Umbro (the modern Ombrone river which bisects Tuscany) navigio-
rum capax et ab eo tractus Umbriae portusque Telamon.' Again:
' Etruria est ab amne Macra.' Solinus, Servius, and Isidore report :
' Veterum Gallorum Umbros propaginem esse,' and the former would
derive the name ' ab imbribus.'
172 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
people concerning whom the voice of antiquity
speaks with a clearer or a surer sound.1
The decay of the Graeco-Pelasgi was followed
by the emigration of the Pelasgo - Tyrrhenians,3
the Lydians, or Mseonians, from Asia Minor, which
still kept up its connection with Greece and Italy.
The Turscha, Turs'a, Tuirs'a, and Turis'a of the
Egyptian annals, the acerrimi Tiisci of Virgil,
are supposed to have come by sea about the four-
teenth century B.C., and they occupied, as a great
military power, the central peninsula with 300
oppida (Pliny, iii. 14), raising themselves upon
the ruins of the former races. They are generally
believed to have first founded the Tyrrhenian
Federation of the west, ' Etruria Madre,' and to
have crossed the Apennines and occupied the
Circumpadan regions, ' Etruria Nova,' as far as
the Alps (Herod. 'Clio,' 94), and, lastly, Etruria
Campania or Opicia, in the twelfth or, perhaps, in
1 Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Dionysius Halicarnassus, Virgil
and his commentators (Servius), Strabo (especially, v. i), Pliny, Pau-
sanias, Silius Italicus, ' e non pochi moderni fino alia noja.' The tra-
dition of the three streams is preserved in the names of lapyx, Daunus,
and Peucetius, the three sons of the Illyrian king Lycaon.
3 Pliny (iii. 8) : ' Umbros, inde exegere antiquitus Pelasgi, hos Lydii.'
Dionysius Hal. (Antiq. Rom. i. 20) tells us that the Pelasgi, uniting
with the aborigines, took Umbrian Crotona and used it as an arx and
a defence against its former owners.
THE ETRUSCANS. 173
the thirteenth century B.C.1 This would be about the
date of the Trojan war (popularly B.C. 1184), and
some four centuries before Rome was built. But
the superior antiquity of the Rhceto - Etruscan
alphabet, the rarity of Felsinean inscriptions ob-
served in almost every tomb of Middle Etruria, and
the archaic finds of the Tyrol and Bolognese ter-
ritories, may suggest that emigrations by land, and
perhaps settlements, accompanied, or even preceded,
the sea voyages ; hence, possibly, the north-eastern
was the most sacred quarter to the Etruscans.
These peoples brought with them the Phcenico-
Greek alphabet, and applied it to the dialect peculiar
to or adopted by them. Thus the learned Corssen
(' Die Sprache der Etrusker ') finds that the Etruscan
alphabets form three groups — Common, Campa-
nian, and Northern — whilst each has some peculiar
letters, and others similar in form, but different
in sense. They are closely related to the oldest
Greek of the peninsula (Cumse and Neapolis), and
this, again, is the same as used by the Chalcidian
colonies of Sicily. They had learned the use of
tin in the Caucasian regions, which supplied Egypt :
1 Varro (De Die Natali, cap. 17) says 450 years before Rome was
founded. Niebuhr (i. 138) also carries back the first Etruscan saculum
to B.C. 1 1 88, or 434 years A.U.C.
174 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
the mines next worked were in Spain, and lastly
came the Kassiterides, with which the Phoenicians
had traded, probably during the domination of the
Shepherd - kings, the Syro - Aramaean Bedawi in-
vaders of Egypt, typified by Abraham and Lot,
between the twenty-first and the seventeenth cen-
turies before our era. The Etruscan rule, which,
in the fifth and sixth centuries B.C., embraced nearly
all Italy, lasted — with the interval of conquest by
the Kymric Boii in B.C. 396 l — till B.C. 281, and its
dialect till B.C. 202 ; thus the life of the nation
ranged between nine hundred and a thousand years.
1 The legend says that on the same day Veil was taken by the
Romans.
CRANIOLOGY. 175
SECTION III.
CRANIOLOGY.
THE collection of skulls exhibited at the Congress
of 1871 was in no wise remarkable except for its
poverty. The principal contribution of the palaeoli-
thic (post-Pleiocene) age was the (Colledel) ' Olmo
skull ' from near Arezzo, now in the Royal Museum
of Natural History, Florence : this calvaria or calotte
was, as I have said, found in the diluvial travertine.
The (Isola del) ' Liri skull,' also dolichocephalous,
and probably synchronous, was discovered in sand
under a stratum of the same concretionary deposit,
80 centimetres in thickness. The cubic contents of
the latter are laid down at only 1,306 cubic centimetres
( = 79701 cubic inches), showing a brain of 1,156
grammes (=2 Ibs. 878 oz.) ; and the likeness to the
Engis skull has been generally remarked. The neo-
lithic specimens were more abundant. Two skulls
from the Monte Tignoso cave, near Leghorn — one
exceedingly brachycephalic (ceph. ind. 92), the other
176 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
very dolichocephalic (c. i. 71)* — show, during the
second Stone Age, the existence of the two distinct
types still characterising the Italian race. It is an
observation generally made that the modern peoples
of upper Italy are mostly short-headed, and the
southerners long-headed, whilst the two forms blend
in the Island of Elba, in modern Umbria, and in
the Province of Rome, where, however, the brachy-
cephalic is said to be waxing rarer.
The Tignoso skulls are both small, with restricted,
depressed, and narrow frontal regions, and exagge-
rated occiputs. Two brachycephalic skulls from the
Grotta di Castello, on the Monte Pisano, beyond the
Serchio, greatly resembled them, although only the
calvaries remained. A third pair, from the neo-
1 Dr. Paul Broca, the learned Secretary of the Anthropological
Society of Paris (p. 398, Sur la . Classification et la Nomenclature
Cephaliques, &>c.j Revue d'Anthropologic, established five several
groups : —
1. Dolichocephals : — Cephalic Index. Simple Fractions.
True Dolichocephals, 75 : 100 and below = \ or f.
Sub-Dolicocephals, from 75*01 : 100 to 77-00 = f.
2. Mesati'cephals, from 7778 : 100 to 80-000 = | or T8S.
3. Brachycephals : —
Sub-Brachy., from 80-01 : 100 to 83-33 = I or £§.
True Brachy., all above 83-33.
It is rare, he tells us, that the mean cephalic index of a race, not in-
cluding its deformities, natural or artificial, descends to 71 or rises to
87, thus giving an ecart of 16 ; the normal extremes being respectively
65 and 92 (= 27).
CRANIOLOGY. 177
lithic Caverna della Matta, fortunately had lower
jaws : one was of the dolichocephalic division (c. i.
68), very long, and flattened at the sides, a type
found in Sardinia, but rarely on the adjacent con-
tinent : the other was of the marked brachycephalic
or Ligurian type (c. i. 84). To the latter people
probably belonged the cannibals of the Palmaria
Island in the Gulf of Spezia : their remains have
been ably described ('Grotta de' Colombi ') by
Professor Giovanni Capellini, a native of that place,
who, at the early age of 34, has risen to be Rector
of the venerable University of Bologna. He it was
who conceived the idea of the Congress of Bologna,
who has taken a leading part at every meeting
of the kind, and who had the moral courage to
declare his belief (' L'Antropofagismo in Italia all'
Epoca della pietra,' ' Gazzetta dell' Emilia,' no. n,
1869) in the universal prevalence of cannibalism,
and who consequently was long regarded, with the
usual inconsequence, as little better than a canni-
bal himself. I am pleased to find in this savant,
as in my distinguished friend, the anthropologist
Professor Carl Vogt, such efficient support for the
theory which I formed and published many years
ago. It is still my conviction that anthrophagy has,
N
178 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
like polygamy and slavery, belonged to all peoples
at some epoch of their history ; that cannibalism,
like both the so-called ' patriarchal institutions,'
not only satisfied physical wants, but led to moral
progress ; that human sacrifice ending in bestial sacri-
fice, which in turn has yielded place to the ' bloodless
sacrifice ; ' and thus that it was not only beneficial
to the state of society which recorded it, but it
has also tended to the progress and the develop-
ment of mankind.
The only specimens of the Bronze Epoch were
three skulls discovered in a sepulchral cave of Monte
Calamita (Elba) ; and they were described by
Professor Vogt (' Di alcuni antichi crani rinvenuti
in Italia.') Those of the terramare of the Emilia,
also bronze, have not been found ; but the kitchen-
middens of Modenese Gorzano yielded two of
Ligurian type, probably buried in subsequent times.
Most of these skulls and other synchronous
finds (e.g. the brachycephalic Mezzana Corte, etc.)
have been commented upon by Cav. Dott. Gius-
tiniano Nicolucci, the well-known craniologist, and
the accomplished author of the volume ' Delle Razze
Umane.' According to him (' L'homme pre-his-
toriqueen Italic,' ' Congres,' pp. 233-238), thispalseo-
CRANIOLOGY. 179
lithic or early Quaternary man represented the
original and primitive type of the actual Italian
races. The cranium, here short, there long, was
of small capacity and solid thickness ; the form
was an ogival arch spreading out posteriorly ; the
frontal region was low, narrow, and retreating, with
prominent and even connecting glabellce ; and an
external crest, with a corresponding internal channel,
ran from the mid - forehead to the centre of the
sagittal suture, whilst the foramen magnum abnor-
mally approached the occiput. As the lower maxillae
are wanting in the earliest specimens, it cannot
safely be determined whether the race was pro-
gnathic or orthognathic ; but the strongly-marked
attachments for muscles show vigour accompanying
short stature.
In the earlier neolithic age, as we see by the two
skulls from Cantalupo Mandela, near Rome, there
is considerable improvement ; the crania, both long
and short, are less thick ; the temporal region is
higher, straighter, and broader, the great foramen
is nearer the axis, and the posterior as well as the
anterior divisions are better proportioned. The
capacity and the contents, which in the Quaternary
Liri skull were 1,306 c. c., and 1,156 grammes now
N 2
i8o THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
become 1,408 c. c. (=85-926 cubic inches) and 1,245
grammes (-=2lbs. 11-91 ounces). Both the skulls
above specified have a slight maxillary prognathism,
corrected, however, by the position of the teeth,
which are set vertically in the alveoli, and we have
reason to believe that the whole body had followed
the progress of the head.
In the Bronze Age, as we see by the skulls from
Torre della Maina and from Elba (/Ethalia, Ilva,
an Etrurian State, according to Virgil, x. 173), the
process of development is not arrested ; the bones
again become thinner, the capacity is 1,500 c. c.
( = 91*540 c. c. i.), and the contents 1,326 grammes
( = 2lbs. 14-7802.); about the same, in all three
points, as in the modern man. Lastly, the Age of
Iron shows the greatest removal from the Quater-
nary peoples ; and the types begin to distribute them-
selves into those of the modern Italian areas, with
modifications arising only from cosmic conditions
and mixture of blood!
At the Congress, Count Gozzadini exhibited a
valuable series of 26 skulls, two from Villanova and
24 from Marzabotto. Two of the former were pro-
gnathous, possibly distorted by pressure ; most of the
latter were fragmentary, and all showed brachy-
CRANIOLOGY. 181
cephalism as well as dolichocephalism. Prof. Nicolucci
(Sui cranii rinvenuti nella Necropoli di Marzabotto
e di Villanova), who recognised the two types, the
dolichocephalic being 63 to 37 of the other, having
compared one cranium from Villanova and three
from Marzabotto with undoubted Etruscan speci-
mens (in his Antropologia dell1 Etruria : Naples,
1869) decided that the four former were non-
Etruscan. Having also failed, after equal study, to
detect any affinities with the Kelts of Cisalpine
Gaul ; he therefore concluded that they belong to
the men still holding Bolognese ground, that is, to
the Italic Umbri. This well-known anthropologist,
whose opinions carry great weight, defended his
Umbrian theory in two letters addressed to Count
Gozzadini, against the Etrusco-Ligurian ideas of
Prof. Carl Vogt. The latter had judged a skull
from Villanova to be of Etruscan type, whilst he
attributed those of Marzabotto to the Ligurians
('Sur quelques Cranes antiques trouves en Italic,'
' Bulletin de la Soc. Anthrop. de Paris,' torn, i.,
serie 2, fasc. i) ; but he also persisted, with Lag-
neau, in reviving the old theory of Baer (1839)
versus Andreas Retzius (1842), that the Etruscans
were dolichocephals. Prof. Nicolucci's theory is dis
1 82 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
cussed by the learned Cav. Dott. Antonio Garbi-
glietti, one of the first to call the attention of anthro-
pologists to the peculiarities of Etruscan type (p. 39,
Sopra alcuni recenli scritti di craniologia etnografica
dei Dottori G. Nicolucci e J. Barnard Davis : Torino,
tip. Favale, 1866). The learned Professor Cav.
Alberto Gamba (Special Report to the Royal Academy
of Medicine, Turin}, after honourably mentioning
his brother anthropologist, declares ' di non potere
abbracciare in modo assoluto 1'opinione del Nicolucci,
e cio perche la differenza di forma, di proporzione e
di misure che i cranii Etruschi e quelli di Marzabotto
e Villanova non sono abbastanza pronunziati per
dichiarare questi ultimi di stirpe piu moderna.'
After offering reasons for this conclusion, he adds :
' Se noi osserviamo lo specchietto dall' illustre dott.
Nicolucci presentato, noi vediamo che i cranii di
Marzabotto e Villanova appartengono ad una stirpe
differente perfettamente dalla Celtica, e la differenza
sta principalmente nella forma, o tipo generale
del cranio. Ma se osserviamo le differenze dal
Nicolucci notate fra i due cranii di Villanova e
Marzabotto e quelli Etruschi, io vi confesso ingenu-
amente, di non poterne sottoscrivere la sentenza di
separazione, ne di epoca storica, ne di stirpe.' He
CRANIOLOGY. 183
thus pronounces all to be of the same race, guarding
himself, however, by noting the insufficient number
which had come under his observation ; and finally,
he offers a wise caution concerning the difficulty of
determining the characteristics that distinguish the
Etruscan cranium. A people which emigrated from
three different regions at various eras not deter-
mined by history and which mingled with four
older races, the Umbri, the Ligurians, the Osci, and
the lapygian Volsci, perhaps even with the Cisalpine
Kelto-Galli, cannot have acquired the racial type of
cranium without passing through centuries of change
and the progressive development of pacific institu-
tions. He would therefore hold as characteristic
only the crania of the Twelve Cities of Middle
Etruria during their most flourishing period 500 to
400 B.C.
On the other hand, Professors P. Montegazza
(' Congres,' p. 239) and A. Zannetti (p. 166, Studi sui
crani Etruschi. Arch, per I' Antrop. e la Etno. :
Florence, 1871) compare, and find a resemblance
between, the Villanova and Marzabotto skulls
and those of Chiusi, Tarquinii, and well-known
Etruscan centres. But the former denies, in the
present obscurity of Italian ethnography, the right
1 84 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
of giving scientific definitions to the racial elements
which we call Umbrian, Etruscan, Roman. He
cites the case of Sardinia, where he made a fine col-
lection, and which he carefully visited, not neglecting
even the smaller villages. Popular scientific opinion
divides the island into two zones, Latin in the
north ; in the south Arab, or rather Semitic : yet he
observed, without noticing other secondary elements,
such as Siculi, Catalans, and others, a distinctly
Egyptian type, which extends even to the neighbour-
ing terra forma ; whilst the peasantry of the Canno-
bina Valley retain the characteristics of its old
colonists, the Romans. Prof. Montegazza espe-
cially denies our ability to deduce, in the actual
state of science, the intellectual hierarchy of the
brain from the shape or size of the skull which con-
tained it, and he concludes with the sensible obser-
vation : ' Ou s'introduit la passion, la ve"rite" se cache
la figure de ses deux mains.'
Not a few have attempted to prove, I have
said, that the Boian conquerors buried their dead
in the same cemeteries with the Etruscan. This
' funereal infiltration ' is generally rejected ; although
the shapes of the swords, the forms of certain
objects of luxury, and even the mode of burial,
CRANIOLOGY. 185
seem to prove an interchange or a reciprocity of
ideas between the Etruscans and the Gauls.
The 'Thesaurus Craniorum' (London, 1867)
of my learned correspondent Dr. J. Barnard Davis,
a work of which I am glad to say that a Supplement
has been issued, contains a description of one
Oscan and of two Etruscan calvaries. The former
is quasi-brachycephalic, and the very narrow fore-
head is a striking contrast with the typical Roman.
Of the latter pair, one (No. 769) was found at
Villanova ; unfortunately, it is imperfect : the second
is by far the finest of the three (No. 1,173,
p. 85, accompanying the Etruscan inscription).
This large calvarium of a young woman, exhumed
in 1857 near Perugia, is exceedingly like an ancient
Roman skull. The author records also the remarks
of Professor L. Calori, which are principally directed
to oppose the impression, derived from certain cases
of prognathism, that the Etruscans were allied to
the Ethiopic races, and cites Dr. Antonio Garbiglietti's
study of an Etruscan skull, which exhibits on both
sides the singularity of a suture running along the
lower edge of the os jugale, and dividing the bone
into two portions. Regarding Professor Calori's
' Phoenician Origin of the Etruscans ' — I shall have
186 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
more to say of it — Dr. Barnard Davis considers
that the opinion of such a competent and thoroughly
honest investigator deserves every consideration.
The author of the ' Thesaurus,' however, has one
good example of an ancient Phoenician skull (No.
1,174, p. 86) from Sardinia, and he seems to think
that it does not agree very closely with the ancient
Etruscan. He mentions the fact that Dr. G.
Nicolucci, who described and figured the skulls in
the Museum of Antiquities, Cagliari, classed them
with those of the Semites — Arabs and Jews.
Finally, he has an Oscan skull (No. 1,049, P- 84)
from Nola, strikingly distinguished from the Roman
by the narrowness of the frontal region.
PROFESSOR C A LORI. 187
SECTION IV.
PROFESSOR CALORI.
IN order to interview the Etruscan, a visit should be
paid to the learned anatomist and naturalist Prof.
Commendatore Luigi Calori, whose published works
require no quotation, whilst his kind and genial
reception encourages even the ' profane ' — in the
Latin and Italian sense of the word. His study,
behind the theatre where he lectures, contains 19
old Etruscan skulls, and he will at once point out
their resemblance with the ' massive and grandiose
Roman calvaria! The chief points of similarity are
the semicircular lines of the temples ; the harmony of
the zygomatic arches, and the pronounced angular
sinus between the nose and the frontal bone ; the
great development of the superciliary arches ; the
square, horizontal orbits ; the posterior position of
the auditory meatus ; the greater bi-parietal
diameter ; the heavy mandible ; and, finally, the
strong attachments of the muscles. Most of these
i88 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
crania are dolichocephalic ; one is decidedly brachy-
cephalic as a German. The bones vary from the
very massive to the remarkably thin, and the first
points which struck me were the shortness of the
lower bi-temporal diameter, the long square face,
and the flatness or compression of the parietes,
which every traveller remarks in the Bedawin, the
flower of the Semitic race. Compared with the
valuable series of Umbrians in the Museum of
Natural History, and with another assortment not
yet prepared for exhibition, the Etruscans assert
themselves as the ' rerum domini,' and they give to
the ' vividus Umber' the mild aspect of a vassal
wanting animal force, the prime requirement of an
imperial race.
Prof. Calori has given a detailed account of 28
skulls in his folio of 169 pages. It is abundantly
illustrated by 1 7 tables, with the skulls reduced
throughout the atlas to half-lengths and quarter-
sizes. The lithographs, by C. Bettini, are sightly and
artistic. The volume is entitled ' Delia Stirpe che
ha popolato 1'antica Necropoli alia Certosa di
Bologna e delle genti affini : Discorso Storico-
Antropologico ' : Bologna, tipi Gamberini e Par-
meggiani, 1873. Of this magnificent work, 're-
PROFESSOR C A LORI. 189
markable for its material execution,' only 62 copies
were printed, at the expense of the City of Bologna ;
and Dr. Barnard Davis, who was, like myself, for-
tunate enough to receive a copy, inserted a short
notice of it in ' Anthropologia ' (No. i, pp. 104-5).
Needless to say this Edition de luxe should be fol-
lowed by a popular one.
Thirty-five pages (pp. 28-62, chap, iv.) are
allotted to the questions, ' Chi fossero gli Etruschi,
donde, quando e come venissero in Italia ? ' and the
answers are peculiarly unsatisfactory. The learned
anthropologist examines and rejects the Lydian or
Mseonian legend related to Herodotus, concerning
the Tyrrheni taking ship at Smyrna. This theory
has lately been revived by travels in Lycia, Phrygia,
and other parts of Asia Minor; but it relies mainly
upon superficial resemblances of dress and orna-
ments, of games and other customs, and of archi-
tecture, and ancient monuments, as the Sardis
Mound, the tomb of Porsenna (Chiusi), and the
Cucumella of Vulci. Glancing at the Pelasgic origin
assigned by Hellanicus Lesbius, he notices at some
length the terriginous theory of Dion Halicarnassus,
the profoundest writer on Italic subjects. The
latter, in contradiction to the general consensus of
1 90 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
antiquity, twenty-two classical authorities, denies the
Lydian legend, because Xanthus, a Greek of Sardis
and nearly contemporary with Herodotus, was silent
upon the subject ; and because the Rasenna l of his
day ' do not use the same language as the Lydians,
nor do they worship the same gods, nor resemble
them in their manners and customs.' But these
are negative proofs. Strabo, the contemporary of
the Halicarnassian, assures us that the Lydian
tongue had died out of Lydia ; and we may
reasonably conclude that, after distant wanderings,
and the Italianisation of a thousand years, the
Etruscans might greatly modify, in fact almost
change, their faith and their social habits. Nor must
we forget that the Etruscans declared consanguinity
with Sardis on the ground of an early colonisation
of Etruria by the Lydians (Tacit. ' Ann.' iv. 55). I
see, therefore, no reason why we should reject the
Lydian origin, or even the derivation of Tyrrhene
from Tyrrha, the Lydian Torrha (Miiller, ' Etrusk.'
Einl. ii. i).
1 Rasne and Resne have been found on Etruscan urns (Dennis, i.,
xxxii.). The late Dr. Hincks identified in the Perugian inscription
Tesne Rasne with ' Etruscan land ' ; cei with ' and,' and tesnteis with
' inhabitants.' As yet no Graeco-Etruscan bilingual inscription has
been discovered.
PROFESSOR CALORT. 191
The Professor finds analogies with Egypt, as we
might expect from the records of the ' Tursha ' in-
vader. The three Etrurian Federations of Twelve
Cities suggest that of Lower Egypt, which had
Memphis for capital ; but this is also found in the
Twelve of the Achaean League. He then examines
the religion, apparently a pantheistic and polytheistic
naturalism, composed of three orders of gods, one of
immortals and the rest mortal. The first were the
' Diisuperiores et involuti,'the/£?z£#2/fo7of St. Augus-
tine, the primitive Matter (Hebrew, BoJm ; Egyptian,
Muf), which, uniting with generative force (Ba'al,
Amon, or Kem), the nisus formativus, became
Natura naturans, whence Natiira naturata. These
mysterious deities begat the consentes or complices —
so called because they are born and die together — the
' conciliarii ac principes summi Jovis.' This work-
ing committee of Twelve, like the Triad of the Brah-
mans and the Greeks, and the Duad of the Persians,
contained six males and six females, the ' Saktis '
symbolising, in the faith of India, Active Energy.
Lastly, from these twelve emanate the Genii, whom
the Professor compares with the Vishwadevas of the
Hindus, and whose action is good (Penates and
Lares}, bad (Larva), and indifferent (Le/tiures,
192 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
Lastz, and Manes or ghosts) : they may be reduced
to the dualistic form of beneficent and malevolent
Genii, superintended by Jove and Vejovis, Hormuzd
and Ahriman. Thus he deduces an Egypto- Phoe-
nician or simply a Phoenician system ; and, quoting
Seneca, ' Tuscos Asia sibi vindicat/ he opines the
Rasenna to be Aryans who had adopted a Semitic
*
creed.
I would here remark that while the cosmogony
of the Etruscans is Asiatic, the vast scheme of their
religion, numbering upwards of 200 gods and super-
naturals, connects them with Persia, with India,
and even with Greece. Moreover, they appear not
to ignore the creative Deity, the Demiurgos of the
cosmic system of Genesis. Their '^Esar,' translated
by all classical authorities ' Deus,' would be the
finial of the temple of faith, but the monotheistic
element is, as usual in polytheisms, kept out of
sight. ' Speak not of God to the mob,' said the
Pythagorean ; whereas Moses took the Deity out of
the hands of ,the priests, and made the idea the
property of the world. I have elsewhere noticed
how a notion of unity underlies the idolatry of
polytheistic peoples in Asia, and even in savage
Africa ; and, judging by the analogy of the former
PROFESSOR CALORI. 193
with the civilisation of Egypt and Assyria, Greece
and Rome, I have little doubt that it was universal.
Here, therefore, despite the professional flavour of
the passage, I will not join issue with him who says :
' We may take comfort in the thought that the
Heavenly Father, whom they (the Turanians) igno-
rantly reverenced, did not leave them without some
faint witness of Himself, but dimly guided them to
a glimmering knowledge of the Eternal Goodness,
and gave them also, in their darkness, the solace of
that blessed hope of immortality which is the stay
and refuge of the Christian life.'
The language is then touched upon, with results
as meagre. Our author notices the several theo-
ries : the Semitic (Hebrew and Chaldee) of Janelli,
Tarquini, and Stickel ; the Iberian, or Basque;
the Keltiberian ; the Keltic (Etruria Celtica of Sir
W. Betham) ; the Teutono-Gothic ( Bardetti, Durandi,
Bruce Whyte, and Dr. Donaldson, in his ' Var-
ronianus'), 1 and the high German or Gothic of
Lord Crawford and Balcarres. The last-mentioned
author (Etruscan Inscriptions Analysed, Translated,
and Commented upon : Murray, 1873), makes the
1 He judges it, however, Pelasgian corrupted by Umbrian, and
mixed with the oldest Low German (Scandinavian).
O
194 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
sequence Japhetan, Aryan, and Teutonic, and iden-
tities the Tyrrhenoi, not with ' High Dutch,' but
with the Tervingi or Visi-Goths, the Thuringi of
Central Germany, and the Tyrki of Scandinavia.
Furthermore, we have the Slav (Volensky) ; the
Armenian (Robert Ellis, B.D., Peruvia Scytkica,
Triibner, 1875) ; the Sanskrit (Bertani) ; the Graeco-
Umbrian (Lepsius) ; the Rhseto-Romansch 1 (Steub,
1843) ; the 'Indo-European' (Prichard) ; the Archaic
Greek (Gori and Lanzi) ; and, finally, the Aryo-Italic
(Mommsen, Conestabile, Fabretti, and Corssen,
Ueber die Sprache der Etrusker, 2 vols. Leipzig
1874), like the Oscan, Umbrian, Euganean, and
other rude dialects of the ancient peninsula — this
theory supports the Italic origin of Dion. Halicar-
nassus (Micali). After many modest professions
of incompetence, our Professor ends (p. 56) with
opining that ' i Fenici ' were the ancestry of the
Etruscans, and he complicates the question by con-
siderations of descent from Ham and Shem, which
1 In the cognate Euganean tongue, whose alphabet is considered
the oldest of the three Etrurias by Prof. Corssen, and most like the
Carthaginian, Count Giovanni of Schio points out the thoroughly
Aryan words mi (I), eka or ekka (hie), siithi (sum], and cerus manus =
Creator Sonus, the former from the root ' Kar,' doing or making, the
latter recognised as the opposite of the Latin immanis.
PROFESSOR CALORI. 195
are somewhat old-fashioned in these days. He also
finds the Phoenicians in Sardinia and Sicily, perhaps
in Corsica and Illyria ; he traces them to Western
Italy, as at ' Punicum,' in the territory of ' Agylla,' 1
as the Phoenicians called Caere ; in Rusellae, from
Rosh-El, head (-land) of God, and in Telamon
(Tell-Amun), the Hill of Ammon. This is far
from convincing. Niebuhr says : ' People feel an
extraordinary curiosity to discover the Etruscan
language,' and adds that ' he would give a con-
siderable part of his worldly means as a prize if it
were discovered ; for an entirely new light would
then be spread over the ethnography of ancient
Italy.' The want, I fear, is far from being satisfied.
But we may attribute some importance to the
general aspect of Etruscan civilisation, its immense
superiority to that of the peninsula generally, and
its difference, not only in degree, but in kind, from
the social condition of the old Italic races. Their
cosmogony is evidently Genesitic ; while their zodiac
and their astronomy, which could fix the tropical
year at 365 d. 5h. 40 m., and their architecture,
1 Mommsen makes Agylla Punic and Semitic. Mr. Isaac Taylor
(P- 347) wonderfully derives it from Osmanli awlu, a court, and
eyl (or *'/), a country, as in Rum-Elia, the land of the Rumi.
O 2
196 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
especially the Doric, which we know to be Egyptian ;
the winged goddess ; the modified sphinx, the eagle-
banner, and a host of other Nilotica, must have
come, not from Italy, then barbarous, but from civi-
lized Mizraim or Chaldsea.
For the date of the Etruscan emigration we
have the suggestion, that it might have begun about
the seventeenth century B.C., when Semiramis,
the Imperatrice di molte favelle, had overrun the
so-called Holy Land, Egypt, and Ethiopia (B.C.
1975). The incursions of Joshua, son of Nun,
into ' Canaan ' (B.C. 145 1) may also, as legend informs
us, have tended to scatter other Tyrian and Sidonian
colonies over the western world.
Professor Calori declares (p. 64) that the
anthropologist must not found his theories upon
legend and language ; he studies the crania and
the skeletons of extinct races, and thus he raises
his own edifice with a secondary regard for history
and linguistic deductions. Our anthropologist sup-
ports, on the whole, Professor Nicolucci's Phoenician
type of Etruscan craniology, for which that dis-
tinguished student supplies some points of resem-
blance. Yet he hesitates to pronounce an opinion,
remembering that the race was probably anything
PROFESSOR CALORI. 197
but pure at the time when it left its Asiatic home ;
in fact, he does not, after the fashion of certain
other writers, offer himself as CEdipus to the Etrus-
can sphinx.
We now come to the most valuable part of the
volume (pp. 65 to 161), the technical description
and comparison of the skulls, Umbrian,1 Etruscan,
and Felsinean (from the Certosa), which are com-
pared with those of many other races, Phoenician,
Jewish, Keltic, and modern — unhappily the Boii or
Lingones are absent. The dichotomic classification
of Retzius is adopted. Crania with a cephalic index
of 80 and more are brachycephalic, below 80 they
are dolichocephalic;2 and the various subdivisions,
as orthocephalic or transitional, mesati or meso-
cephalic, sub-dolichocephalic, and sub-brachycephalic
are ignored, except in the concluding remarks
1 Dr. Paul Broca prefers les Ombres (Umbrians) for the ancient,
opposed to les Ombriens, the modern races, of Umbria.
2 Dr. J. Barnard Davis (Thesaurus, xv.) says : ' Where the breadth
is to the length in proportion of 0-80 or more to roo, the skull is
placed in the brachycephalic category ; where it is below that pro-
portion, or less than 0-80 to roo, in the dolichocephalic.' I have re-
tained the learned author's three terms — cranium, for the whole skull
and face ; calvarittm, wanting the lower jaw ; and calvaria, when
only the vault of the skull, the cap or calotte, is in question ; but I
hesitate to adopt the letters, e.g. A (internal capacity), B (circum-
ference), C (fronto-occipital arch), etc. etc.
198 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
(No. 5). The cranial capacity is measured as usual
by sand, when the cranium permits ; in other cases
the Professor uses the rule of Broca and Beltrami :
' Multiply the three axial diameters of the ellipsoid,
and divide by ^f .' The relations of pre^auricular to
post-auricular are obtained in two ways : ist, divide
the horizontal circumference by the bi-auricular arch ;
2nd, divide by the same arch the fronto-occipital
curve, and measure the proportions in front and
behind it ; or, better still, the whole vertical circum-
ference, dividing it by the chord which is the base
of that arch — in other words, by the transversal
bi-auricular diameter.
I. Professor Calori begins with the Umbrians,
of whom he had collated 15 pure specimens in
the Anthropological Museum from the Contado di
Camerino, where the Etruscans are supposed not to
have penetrated ; and where the Romans did not
rule till the decadence of Etruria : he compares them
with a much larger number, the modern descendants
of Umbria and the Marches, not including Ancona
which is Greek. The proportions of the long are
8 to 7 short heads or 53 per cent. : this figure is
notably different from the actual inhabitants, who
show 29 — 30 : 100. He describes and figures five
PROFESSOR CALORI. 199
skulls (Nos. 1-5, plates i.-iii.), one cranium and four
calvaria, almost all deficient in some part.
(a) The old dolichocephalic Umbrian has a mean
cephalic index of 75*07, which in the Roman be-
comes 7770. The average cranial capacity is 1,375
cubic centimetre ( = 8 3 '9 1 4 cubic inches), which attains
1,558 c.c. ( = 95-082 cubic inches) in the Roman, and
1,506 c.c. ( = 91-908 cubic inches) in the Kelt. The
latter shows a marked difference from the former;
he is not only more dolichocephalic, but also, like
the Keltiberian, he is parieto-occipital, instead of
being parieto-frontal. Amongst the 19 Umbrians the
post-auricular form prevails over the pre-auricular,
and the pre-auricular is more highly developed
horizontally than vertically. (Nos. 1-2, Tables
i.-ii.). The sutures are pervious : the norma verti-
calis is either oval or elliptic. The norma lateralis
or profile (mean facial angle 79°) shows a straight
and moderate forehead with the tubera frontalia^
and the nasal sinus tolerably well marked ; the arch
is regular, the occiput prominent, and one (No. 3)
1 In many West African skulls, especially at Dahome, I remarked
the absence of the tubera frontalia, or rather their conversion into a
tuber frontale, a central boss, whose sides sloped regularly away in all
directions. This form is most common in women, and it gives the
face a peculiarly naive and childish expression, the reverse of intel-
lectual.
200 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
has a large fontanelle ; the zygomatic arches are
of middling strength and curve, the anterior nasal
spine is well developed, and there is a slight alve-
olar prognathism. The norma facialis (front view)
shows a fine broad brow, a large glabella, quad-
rangular orbits, horizontal or oblique, and the general
squareness of the old Italic skulls, especially
inherited by that ' quid novum ' the improved
Roman. We see this in the statues of the
Emperors, and we can hardly wonder at it when
we remember the origin of the Luceres (Tusco-
Umbri). The norma basilaris (or occipitalis) gives
a well-developed occipital crest and semi-circular
lines, whilst the foramen is central.
(b] The brachycephalic Umbrian skull (plate iii.)
is described as ' esquisitamente bello': c. i. 8179,
thus not very short ; average cran. cap. only 1,409
cub. cent. ( = 85*987 cubic inches) ; post-auricular
equally developed horizontally and vertically, whilst
the pre-auricular preponderates in the former direc-
tion— hence the brachycephalic is less pre-auricular
than the dolichocephalic. The sutures are mostly
open and the vertex is oval ; the profile (facial angle
80°) is elegant, and in one most elegant ; the fore-
head is straight, with strongly marked sinuses, and
PROFESSOR CALORI. 201
is rather high than otherwise. The zygomata are
moderate : orbits horizontal, squarer and somewhat
smaller than in the dolichocephalic ; nose not pro-
minent, occipital tubercle hardly marked, and foramen
posterior ; there is a slight alveolar prognathism,
with perpendicular teeth. Finally, the Professor
notes the essential differences between the brachy-
cephalic Umbrian and the Ligurian (plate viii.).
II. Of the Central Etruscan skulls (9), five are
described and figured (Nos. 6— n, plates iv.-vii.).
In these dolichocephalism is more common than
amongst the Umbrians ; Nicolucci gives 37 : 100 ;
Zanetti 23 : 100; and Calori somewhat reduces
the latter figure.
(a) Of the three dolichocephalic, the average
c. i. is 75*63, which Nicolucci marks 76'oS. It is
thus a medium between the Umbrians (75*07), and
the Romans (7770). The cran. cap. is (mean)
1,375 c.c. J in three specimens (Nos. 6,7 and 8) it rises
to 1,629 c. c. (~99*4I5 cubic inches), the Umbrian
being 1,375 an^ the Roman 1,558; the maximum is
large and almost equal to the Keltic. The post-
auricular constantly prevails. Sutures all pervious
and wanting Wormian bones. Vertex ovoid, and in
one there is a slight carena bisecting the brow. The
202 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
profile has a facial angle averaging 75°'5O. Forehead
almost straight or slightly oblique, generally some-
what depressed and compressed ; temples flat, and
lower part of brow narrow ; orbits now square, then
circular, here horizontal, there oblique ; face longer
than in the Umbrians and notably broader in corre-
spondence with the zygomata ; nasal bones suggest-
ing aquilinity, and chin various.
This type is pronounced to be different from all
the Italic crania, Ligurians, Pelasgians, Oscans, Um-
brians, and Romans. It cannot be compared with the
old Egyptians (17 specimens), with the Helvetians,
or with the modern Italian Jews (6 specimens). The
latter are much more dolichocephalic ; they are larger,
and the face is long, whilst that of the Etruscan is
broad. There are certain points of resemblance with
the modern Sards (22 specimens), supposed to be
Phoenicians, such as the proportions of the pre-
auriculars to the post-auriculars, the cranial arch
and the frontal height. This latter approaches the
Egyptians and Phoenicians, but it is very different
from the Jews. The Phoenician analogies, whom the
Professor will call ' Hamitico-Semites,' are given
with considerable detail (pp. 111-121). He cannot
say that the dolichocephalic Etruscan is either a
PROFESSOR CALORI. 203
Semite or a Phoenician, but the nescio quid of the
expert suggests Egypto-Phoenician. In conversation,
Prof. Calori also compared them with the Cartha-
ginianised Sards, especially the modern skulls dating
from the last three centuries.
(<$) Of the brachycephalic Central Etruscan only
two skulls are given (Nos. 10 and n ; plates vii.,
viii.). They appear larger than those of the ancient
Umbrians and best agree with the old Ligurians —
c.i. 80*67, and cran. cap. 1,479 c.c. ( = 90*026 c. inches) ;
in the Umbrians 1,409, and in the Ligurians 1,461.
The vertex is ovoid, but, like the dolichocephalics,
it is anteriorly narrower than in the Ligurian. The
profile (f. a. 75°'5o). gives well-expressed circular
lines of temple, deep fosses, and strong zygomatic
arches with the zygomata turned outwards. The
forehead is straight, rather low, broad above and
narrow below, like ii. (a] ; it has a sign of the longi-
tudinal carena, and the sinuses are better marked
than the tubera frontalia ; the orbits are small,
horizontal, and deep, rather square than round. The
peculiarity of one mandible (No. 11*, plate viii.) is
the wearing down of the teeth, which has been
noticed in several others : the corona is not shortened,
as amongst the Guanches of Tenerife, by eating
204 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
parched grain ; it is* reduced to two large cutting
cuspides, in saddleback form.1
III. The Certosa find, where, out of 365 fu-
neralia, 250 affected inhumation, appears more im-
portant than it proved to be. The damp, the superin-
cumbent weight of earth, and the long inhumation of
20 centuries had rendered all the Felsinean crania
useless except 16 (a total of 40), and of this poor
number only one was perfect. The Necropolis, how-
ever, served to establish the average stature of the
race ; the men measured 175 metre (= 5 feet 8-90
inches) and the women 1*58 metre (=5 feet 2 '20
inches). Certain analogies with the negro and the
pre-historic man were shown JDV the latter ; as the
proportional length of the forearm to the whole arm,
and the thigh to the leg, together with a higher
degree of prognathism. The elliptical perforation of
the supratrochlear fosses, which appeared to be con-
genital, and not the effect of marasmus senilis, also
suggested Africa, whilst the acinaciform (en lame de
sabre) tibiae, laterally compressed and acute at the
edges, are familiar in the pre-historic ~ skeletons of
1 Dr. Paul Broca gives the indicial differences of the nine Etruscans
Proper as — The maximum, 8roi : 100 ; the minimum, 70-41 ; and a
mean difference of io-6o.
2 Dr. Paul Broca, reviewing Calori and Conestabile (Ethnogcnie
PROFESSOR c A LORI. 205
the oldest types. Only two of the 250 showed the
frontal sutures so common in the Umbrian and the
Marzabotto skulls : in modern crania they average
7-10 per cent. Of the 16 a proportion of 45 : 100
were brachycephalic, — Nicolucci at Marzabotto pro-
poses the figures 46-65 : 100.
(a) The eight dolichocephalic Felsineans (nos.
14-21, plates x.-xiv.) unite the characteristics of the
Umbrians, Etruscans, and Romans. In the six
males the c.i. averages 77*33, in the five females
77*28, giving an average for both sexes of 77*30.5 ;
thus they are less in length than the Umbrians and
Etruscans, much less than the Kelts, and corre-
sponding with the Romans (77*70). The average
cran. cap. of both sexes is 1,344 c. c. (= 8 2 '02 2 c.i.),
of the men 1,560 (=95*204 c.i.), a figure superior
to the dolichocephalic Etruscans and Kelts, and
equal to the Romans. The post-auricular predomi-
nates in 84 per cent In two specimens the bones
are so thick as to suggest hyperostosis. The ovoid
skulls appear anteriorly narrow on account of the
Italienne : ' Les Ombres et les Etrusques,' pp. 289-297, Vol. III.,
Revue d'Anthropologie}, separates Pre-historic (unknown) from
Proto-historic (legendary) and from Historic (written) : the latter in
its positive form began with B.C. 500 in Greece, with B.C. 300 in
Southern and Central Italy — famed for proto-history,— and with A.D.
300 in Northern Europe.
206 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
great posterior breadth, yet they are wider than
the Umbrians, Etruscans, and Kelts, and corre-
spond with the Romans ; the bimastoid diameter
gives greater breadth than the Umbrians, and excels
the Etruscans and Romans. The profile (facial
angle 76°*25) shows an arch more or less pro-
nounced; some are flat,1 and one has the cacumen
rising to the phrenologist's region of firmness, often
noticed in Piedmontese skulls. Forehead not high ;
occiput projecting, and tubercle well developed ;
glabella larger than in Etruscan ; temporal fossae
rather deep, and zygomata turned out ; auditory meatus
central ; orbits straight, round, or oval, and nose
Etruscan. The teeth are fine, somewhat large, and
all more or less worn. The occipital foramen is
central or posterior. Thus the Felsinean dolicho-
cephalics of the Certosa show a considerable Italic
and Etruscan innervation.
(b] The six brachycephalic Felsineans (Nos. 22-28,
plates xv.-xvii.) are mostly of fine proportions. The
1 The traveller, however innocent of craniology, cannot fail to re-
mark that races in the lower, if not the lowest, stages of society — for
instance, the so-called Red Man of North America — have the upper
part of the skull most level ; it is also a marked feature in the pure
negro of Central Intertropical Africa. The cacumen at the apex of
the cranium is highly developed in the Bedawin, a race of no ' educa-
tion ' but of much culture.
PROFESSOR CALORL 207
average c.i. is 83*21 ; the mean cran. cap. 1,487 c.c.
( = 90749 c.i.). The post-auricular prevails as 8470
per cent., the occiput showing a pronounced tuber-
cle. The ovoid is more or less short and broad,
in one case almost an ellipsis. The forehead
(fac. ang. 75°*5o), straight or oblique, is moderately
high ; the meatus auditorius is central ; the orbits
are rather horizontal and circular ; the nose is
gently curved, and the mandible is robust, with fine
large and vertical teeth. The facial region is
elongated. The occipital foramen is less central
than in the dolichocephalics.
Thus the Felsineans are the least dolichocephalic
of the three races, the c.i. averaging 79*35 ; the
Umbrians 78*2 1, and the Etruscans 76*22 : whilst
the maximum is 86*36, and the minimum is 75*00 —
an extreme difference of only 11*36. In cran. cap.,
i, 464 c.c. ( 89*345 c.i.) they stand between the
Umbrians (1,386 c.c. =84*385 c.i.) and the Etrus-
cans (1,481 c.c. =90*383 c.i.) Assuming 100 as the
post-auricular unity in both directions, the relative
pre-auricular proportions are expressed by the follow-
ing numbers : —
Horizontal.
Felsinean Skulls. Etruscan. TJmbrian.
90-68 95- 1 7 9071
Vertical.
84-89 89-26 85-18
208 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
Thus the post-auricular, which invariably pre-
ponderates, is less in the Etruscans, whilst the
Felsineans and Umbrians, although the circum-
ference differs in both, show nearly equal propor-
tions. The Felsineans, compared with a hundred
modern Bolognese skulls, are in some points
remarkably similar ; the difference of the cran. cap.
(Fel. 1,464, and Bol. 1,475) is only n cub. cent.
The Bolognese is shorter and broader, his post-
auricular being 264, to 262 millimetres (10*3937 to
10*3149 inches) of pre-auricular, figures which in the
Felsineans are 279 and 253 (=10*9842 to 9*9606).
The general conclusions which Prof. Calori draws
from his minute craniological observations, of which
this is the merest sketch, are the following : —
1. The old necropolis 'alia Certosa' is that
of the * Lucumonian City,' Etruscan Felsina. It
probably continued to be the Felsineo-Etruscan
cemetery after the Boian invasion, and, as the uncial
as seems to prove, it served till the end of the sixth
century of Rome. There is no proof of any Boian
element having entered it.
2. Felsina was first an Umbrian and afterwards
an Etruscan city ; its population was composed of
Umbrians, or rather Italic peoples, of Etruscans,
and of other races in minor proportions.
PROFESSOR CALORL 209
3. The Italic tree, of whom the Umbrians were
an important off-shoot, is a branch of the Italo-
Grecian stem — in one word, Aryan.
4. On the other hand, we cannot with equal
certainty define, either by history, by monumental
remains, or by anthropological science, the origin of
the Etruscans, or determine whether they were
Aryans or Semites, or a mixture of both, or Aryans
and ' Hamites ' or ' Hamitico-Semites.' Fourteen
centuries before our era we find them, leagued with
the Lycians and other Mediterraneans, battling with
the Pharaoh on the left bank of the Nile ; and we see
them in remote ages the most civilised and power-
ful of the Etruscan peoples. Beyond that, our view
is limited by the glooms of the past.
5. The Umbrian and Etruscan skulls show an
intermediate or transitional rather than a pure
dolichocephalism, and the long is more common
than the short head ; whilst brachycephalism is more
frequent amongst the Umbrians than amongst the
Etruscans.
6. In the Umbrian and the Etruscan dolicho-
cephalic skulls the latter are distinguished by a
superior cranial capacity, by a somewhat longer
form, by less disproportion between the pre-auricular
p
210 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
and the post-auricular halves, by increased length of
face, by more frequent prognathism, and, finally, by
greater disproportion between the transverse dia-
meter of the lower frontal and the inter-zygomatic
lines — peculiarities which make the true Etruscan
skull a well-marked type.
7. In the Umbrian and Etruscan brachycephalic
skulls there are also distinctions : the former espe-
cially cannot be confounded with the Ligurian ;
they appear to belong to another root (stirpe] ;
perhaps to the Illyrian, the Albanese, or the Epi-
rotico-Pelasgian.
8. In the Certosa skulls we also find more
frequent brachycephalism, nearly in the same ratio
observed amongst the Umbrians, and an inter-
mediate dolichocephalism neither decidedly Um-
i
brian nor decidedly Etruscan, but, as in the case
of mixed races generally, sharing the peculiarities
of both peoples.
9. The brachycephalic Felsineans may have
been mixed with the Ligurians, but the proportions
in that case were small ; the greater number points,
like the Umbrians, to another root, or, perhaps, to
several different roots.
10. We have no data to determine whether the
PROFESSOR CALORI. 211
Boians, Lingonians, and Keltic Gauls were dolicho-
cephalic or brachycephalic ; and, supposing that they
modified the Felsineans, we can hardly conjecture
what that modification may have been.
n. Finally, the modern Bolognese skullsf are
more frequently brachycephalic, and show a much
greater pre-auricular development than the old
Felsineans.
P2
212 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
SECTION V.
THE ETRUSCAN LANGUAGE.
PROFESSOR CALORI showed scant sympathy with
the Turanian or Mongolian theory, which has been
patronised by Pruner Bey and G. Lagneau, and
which was not wholly rejected by the learned
Nicolucci. In England the Altaic, or — as the
author calls it, Ugric — tribe of Turanian has lately
been advocated in England, on linguistic and
mythological grounds, by one of those marvellous
popular-scientific books, like ' The One Primaeval
Language,' and ' India in Greece,' by which the
abuse of ' private judgment,' and, perhaps, a ' com-
pound ignorance ' of the subject, periodically causes
the reading world of Europe to laugh, and the
British Orientalist to blush.
' Etruscan Researches/ by the Rev, Isaac
Taylor (London, Macmillan & Co., 1874), sets out
with a thoroughly erroneous and obsolete assertion
which succeeds in vitiating almost every research.
LANGUAGE. 213
We are told at the first opportunity (p. 2) that ' the
ultimate and surest test of race is language.' As
the multitude of general readers still allows itself
to be misled upon this point, whose proper deter-
mination is essential to all correct anthropology,
I will consider it in a few words.
Long ago my friend Prof. Carl Vogt asserted and
proved that ' un peuple peut toujours avoir adopte
une langue qui n'^tait pas la sienne.' We have
familiar instances of the Longobardi in Italy, the
Franks in France, and the Visigoths in Spain,
changing their own tongues for various forms of
neo-Latin. The Aryan-speaking Baloch merge their
rugged variant of Persian into the Arabic of Maskat,
and into the African Kisawahili or lingua-franco,
of Zanzibar. Well worth repeating are the words
of Prince Louis Lucien Bonaparte (' Anthrop. Inst.'
Feb. 9, 1875): ' It is a bold theory to advance
that language is a test of race, and a no less bold
opinion that language should be rejected as an
evidence in the question.' Finally (p. 356), we
have the obsolete ' Grimm's Law ' about the '. drei
Kennzeichen der Urverwandtschaft ; ' the three
signs of primordial affinity of languages, being the
numerals, the personal pronouns, and certain forms
214 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
of the substantive verb. The importance of nume-
rals is especially laid down ^p. 158), when all know
that they are exceedingly liable to phonetic decay,
especially those most used ; for instance, eka (San-
skrit), ii$, unus, and jedian (Slovene). Mr. Robert
Ellis has fallen into the same trap when advocating
primaeval unity.
Bearing in mind Prince Bonaparte's sensible
limitation we proceed to the process by which the
Etruscan Researcher, who speaks (p. 182) of 'the
discovery of Sanskrit,' has invented for the Etrus-
cans a dialect of his own. Before him others have
adopted the facile plan of compulsing a host of
dictionaries, vocabularies, and strings of words,
Hebrew, Chaldaic, Arabic, and Syriac, Himyaritic,
Ethiopic, and Coptic, and of compelling one of them
to afford the explanation required. This is a pro-
cess which, by-the-by, I am sorry, in the interests
of ' glottology,' to see spreading : without exact
historic knowledge and extensive linguistic practice
it can only do harm. Similarly our author, by
turning over the eleven volumes of ' Nordische
Reisen,' etc., and Alexander Castren (Finn, Myth,
etc.), and by borrowing from the dialects of some
48 detached Turanian tribes, ranging between the
LANGUAGE. 215
Ainos and the Magyars, the Finns and the Seljuks
(Osmanlis), has created a conglomerate never
yet spoken, nor ever possible to be spoken, by
mortal man. He rarely attempts an explanation
of the phonetic laws which govern his cognate
languages ; he relies, not upon grammar and for-
mative system, but on detached words ; and he
treats the digraphic and other inscriptions, not as
a decipherer or an archaeologist, but as a 'com-
parative philologist.' And — will it be believed?
— this pseudo-speech is made, with dogmatic
self-confidence, to explain the origin of, not
only Lycians, Carians and Phyrygians, Cilicians
and Pisidians, Ligures and Leleges, but of the
debated Euskaric and even the ancient Egyptian
(Coptic, p. 39), whilst in p. 68 we are told
that Egypt is a Semitic region ; and, finally, the
mysterious Albanian is simply the vulgar Finnic
— ' Tosk ' being converted, not honestly, into
' Toscans ' (p. 20).
Another unsupported and erroneous assertion
is, that mythology, like language, is an 'absolutely
conclusive test of (racial) affinity' (p. 85). It often
represents certain phases of social development
through which all civilised peoples have passed,
216 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
and the same basis of religion— which we may, in
the absence of a better word, call Fetishism — has
served for the Aryan and the Semite as well as for
the Turanian.
The worship of the dead is held by some
reviewers to be the strongest argument of Turanian
affinities. They will find it throughout half-civilized
Africa, Dahome, for instance. The ' Ugric practice
of sorcery ' (p. 14) is simply universal ; every
reader of Blackland travels is familiar with that stage
of society ; and ' magic ' need not be derived from
' Magi ' (p. 79) when we have the Persian equiva-
lent 'mugh' (/**) a. magus. Animism is repre-
sented to be the peculiar creed of the Turanians
(P- 35)' wnen it is the dawn of faith, the belief
in things unseen ; therefore it was universal, and
it lingers in the most advanced creeds — for instance,
in Christianity, to whose spirit the material ghost is
opposed. We have (p. 84) the vague assertion that
"Semitic races tend to a theocracy, while the ten-
dency of the Aryans is to a democratic government: "
this view is formed by reading only Jewish, Greek,
and Roman history ; but the Bedawin, the type of the
so-called Semitic race, have never shown a symptom
of theocracy, and, indeed, may be said to be of no
LANGUAGE. 217
religion at all. ' The Turanian tombs are family-
tombs ' (p. 36) ; but what are the so-called ' Tombs
of the Kings' and 'of the Prophets' near Jeru-
salem ? What are those of Dahome, Ashanti, and
Benin ? — perhaps these also are Turanian ! Of the
contradiction about the temple and the tomb (pp. 41
and 49) I have already spoken. Even Stonehenge
(p. 43) is a primaeval sepulchre of the Turanian
type, when Mr. James Fergusson has proved it to
be comparatively modern. I presume that Pococke's
' two black demons ' who ' dwell in the sepulchre
with the (Moslem) dead' (p. 117, from Dennis i.,
310) are our old friends the Angels Munkir and
Nakir, known to Lord Byron ; they simply visit the
corpse for the purpose of questioning it. And most
people know that the Arab Jinn was a human shape
made of fire, not 'an unsubstantial body of the
nature of smoke' (p. 127).
The geographer and anthropologist stand aghast
before the seven ' Ethnographic Notes ' which con-
tain such assertions as these. ' This is an absolute
note : No Aryan or Semitic people is found
separated by any great interval from other nations
of a kindred race ' (p. 69). Some have traced the
Aryan tongue to South America, and what are the
218 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
Gipsies scattered about the Old and New Worlds ?
Are the Jews Semites or Turanians ? And the
Arab, who, in pre-historic times, spread north-east
to Samarkand, south-east to Malabar, south - west
to Zanzibar and Kafirland, and west to Morocco
and to Spain ? Is this ' an unbroken continuous
block without detached outliers'? How can it be
said that the ' conquests of the Goths, Vandals, and
other Teutonic (add, Scandinavian), and Slavonic
(Slav) 1 races' were the 'conquests of armies rather
than the migrations of nations ' (p. 81) ? It sounds
passing strange to an Englishman in Istria, sur-
rounded by vestiges of Kelts and Romans, and
preserved by a Scythian population. We read,
again, (ibid.} the ' Turks have developed a re-
markable genius for the government and organisa-
tion of subject races,' when the experience of the
Eastern man is embodied in the proverb that where
the Osmanli plants his foot the grass will not grow.
Nor did the Turks ' instinctively take to the sea'
(ibid.}; they engaged Greek, Dalmatian, and other
Aryans to man their ships. How are the Nairs
of the Malabar coast ' hill^tribes ' (p. 57) ? are they
confounded with the Todas of the Nilgiri ? We
1 I am sorry to see Mr. Freeman using the debased form ' Slave.'
LANGUAGE. 219
are told (p. 66) that 'geographically, ancient Etruria
is modern Tuscany,' without the qualification that
there were two other sets of ' duodecim populi' —
one to the south, the other to the north-east,1 so as
to embrace nearly the whole peninsula ; and in 1874
the author had apparently no knowledge of the
immense finds which since 1856 have enriched
Bologna. Converging door -jambs (p. 353) are,
doubtless, Egyptian and Etruscan, but also they
belong to all primitive architecture, the object being
simply to facilitate the construction of the lintel ;
we find them in Palmyra, and we find them in the
far West of America. I read (p. 66) that ceramic
art is the one permanent legacy which the Etrus-
cans have bequeathed to the world, when all their
highest works were either imitations of the Greeks
or were imported from Greece ; nor have we a
word about the merchant-prince Demaratus of
Corinth, who is said to have brought the alphabet
to Etruria (Tacit. 'Ann.' xi. 14, and others) with
the fictores Eucheir and Eugrammos (titles, not
names). The ' passion for vivid and harmonious
1 Dr. Paul Broca (loc . cit.) remarks that Etruria ' Media ' is a
purely geographical term, which, anthropologically speaking, should
be 'Antiqua,' opposed to 'Nova' (Circumpadana), and to ' Novis-
sima ' or ' Opicia ' : the latter is disconnected by Latium, which was
never occupied by the Etruscans.
220 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
colour' is not only Turanian (p. 65); even we
English have received it in Fair Isle from Spain,
which received it from Morocco. ' Tracing descent
by the mother's side' (p. 14) is common to an
immense number of barbarous races ; the Congoese
Africans, for instance, can hardly be Turanian, and
even the old Icelanders, who have nothing in com-
mon with the ' Skrselingjar,' under certain circum-
stances took the surer matronymic.1 Exogamy,
again (p. 58), belongs to a certain stage of society
where all the members of the tribe are held to be
of one blood, and where marriage would be within
the prohibited degree. We find it amongst the East
African Somal, who will be Turanians only when
the Copts are.
It would be fastidious work again to slay the
slain after the critique upon the vocabulary of
'Etruscan Researches,' printed in the 'Athenaeum'
of March 28th, 1874, by Mr. Wm. Wright. But
1 The case stands thus : The Lycians (Herod, i., 173) always traced
their descent, unlike the Greeks and Romans, through the maternal
line, and this has been verified by Fellows (Lycia, 276). The Etrus-
cans (Dennis, i., 133) 'being less purely Oriental, made use of both
methods.' But this careful author is hardly justified in deriving the
custom from the East : it would arise naturally from the high position
of women in a people of diviners, augurs, and, perhaps, of mes-
merists ; but we cannot say that such dignity is an Asiatic custom.
LANGUAGE. 221
the absolute ignorance of all Eastern languages,
and the unscrupulous ingenuity with which names
of persons and places are distorted, require some
notice. The authority of MM. Lenormant, Sayce,
Edkins, and Sir Henry Rawlinson is invoked
('Athenaeum,' May 2nd, 1874) to defend as Tura-
nian or ' Turkish ' such familiar Arabic words as
Nasl, Jinn, and Ghoul ; but what of ' li-umm '
(Lemures !) meaning simply in Arabic ' to the
mother ' ? The learned interpreter of Cuneiform
must be charmed with the role here assigned to
him. The name of Attila, we are told, is ' of an
Etruscan type, and can be explained from Etruscan
sources ' (p. 75), when we' find it even in the
Scandinavo-Aryan Atli. ' The name of the Budii,
a Median tribe,' is 'seen in the town-name of Buda
in Hungary '(p. 78); the latter (tufa), signifying
literally a ' boy,' was the proper name of Atil or
Attila's brother, put to death by him. The dis-
puted word ' Ogre ' is derived ' from the Tartar word
ugry, a thief (p. 376), which also named the
' Ugrian,' I should rather find its equivalent in the
Hindu agkor, as aghorpanthi, the religious mendi-
cant, part of whose Dharma (duty) was cannibalism.
' The very name of DARIUS, the Mede, can be
222 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
explained from Finnic sources,' which seem able,
like a certain statesman, to explain away everything
(p. 79); but we trace its cognate in the modern Persian
Dara. 'Tarquin' (Tar^i) is Tark-Khan, the pru-
dent prince (ibid.} ; ' Lucumo' (p. 322) means 'great
Khan, from hi and kan (for 'khan'); and here we
may note that the ' great Cham of Tartary,' which
the unlettered Englishman is tempted to pronounce
as in ' c/iam'-ber, came to us through the Italians.
Perfunctory enough are the connection (pp. 266-8) of
the prsenomen Vele (an axe-handle, or ful in Yeni-
seian) with Caius (a cudgel, Latin, caja}, which
was Gaius ; and such resemblances as Soracte with
Ser-ak-Tagh, snow-white mountain (p. 346) — worse
than Nibly's Pelasgic S«>fo£-'AxT>5 — as Ascanius with
Szon Khan, and as lulus with Eszen Hi (p. 374),
ancestors of the Turkomans. Father Tiber (p. 330)
hails from ' Teppeh-ur ' (peh Teppeh, hill, Persian
ur, water, Turanian ?); but what of Varro's Thebris
or Dehebris, and of Thepri, Thephri, the forms given
by Dennis (ii. 481)? Who has attributed the in-
vention of dice to the Etruscans (p. 332) ? The
derivation of Kiemzathrm (p. 188), explained, as
2-|-i+4+Io+i, to mean twice forty or eighty,
from the Yeniseio-Ariner ' kina-man-tschau-thjung,!
LANGUAGE. 223
is a masterly waste of time to the reader as well as
to the writer. If Juno (p. 133) come from Jomu,
God, we will take the liberty of associating with her
our old friend ' Mumbo Jumbo,' not worshipped in,
the Mountains of the Moon.
In p. 315 the Etruscan ' Antai,' the winds, are
identified with ventus, oivsfj.oc, and the Teuton wind,
when the Sanskrit vdta shows the nasal not to be
radical. Why go to the Ugric ker, or akcr in Lapp,
for ager, when even in Scandinavian we have
Akkr (p. 333). As Dr. Birch remarks ('Athenaeum,'
June 20, 1874), Mr. Taylor has made a ' petitio
principii in assuming that thapirnal = niger;
kahatial — violens, kiarthalisa = fuscus, and
vanial — sees calis, whatever that may mean.' It
by no means appears that the Roman words in the
bilingual epitaphs were translations of the Etruscan ;
they might have been aliases. ' In fact, kahatial
is translated in the bilingual inscriptions cafatia
natus and varnalisa by varid natus, not Rnftis,
which, added afterwards, was something besides
which he was called, as an agnomen in Latin,
but not Etruscan. In p. 3 19 we are informed that
there is no tenable Aryan etymology for popu7us,
the poplar-tree, whence Populonia. Colonel Yu7e
224 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
('Some Unscientific Notes on the History of Plants,'
p. 49, ' Geog. Mag.,' Feb. 1875) has shown the
contrary to be the case ; like d/mrja, the birch, the
word accompanied the earliest emigration from the
East. Popidus, pioppo {fioppa, in Bolognese),
peuplier, and poplar are the Sanskrit pippala,
the modern Hindu pipal (Ficus religiosa), whose
superficial likeness causes the French to name the
Indian fig ' peuplier d'Inde' and the Palermo gar-
dener to baptise it 'pioppo delle Indie.' Major
Madden also found the populus ciliata of Kumaon
called by the people ' Gar-pipal.' Lord Crawford
explains the Etruscan Bacchus by this process
' Pampin= fauTrsX = Phuphl + ans, uns or ana =
Phuphluns, Pupliana, i.e., " God of the Vine." :
The existence of the Huns in Etruscan days is
proved (pp. 76 and 367) by the word HVINS (mirror
engraved by Gerhard. Taf. ccxxxv.), the terminal
sibilant being ' probably the Etruscan definite
article.' I suggested (' Athenaeum,' March 28,
1874) that the word might also be read HLTNS,
(Hellenes ?) part of an inscription over what has
generally been supposed to be the Trojan Horse.
Dr. Birch, however, says ('Athenaeum,' June 20,
1874) that it ' may, with equal, if not greater, proba-
LANGUAGE. 225
bility, be referred to the capture of Pegasus (Pecse)
by Vulcan (Sethlans), and to the Fountain Hippo-
krene, or Fons Caballinus, in Etruscan huins, analo-
gous to the Latin fans. He suggests ' Etule Pecse
Sethlans,' as equivalent to the Greek ' Edoulene
Pegason Hephaistos;' but 'under any circumstances
the Huns take to flight' -Again, it is evident that the
inscription ' Nusthieei ' or ' Nusthieh' (pp. 112-113)
should be read the other way, Heithzun, or, probably,
Heiasun — lason or Jason, according to Dr. Birch.
The difficulty is that the E faces from left to right
and the s from right to left.
' The French Marechal,' a groom or farrier
(p. 267), is not fairly explained. Our popular
derivation is from the Scandinavian mara, a mare —
hence nott-mara, a night-mare — and skjald, a ser-
vant The latter has passed through sundry vicissi-
tudes before he became a m^r-skal. I would, how-
ever, observe that the Illyrian and other Slavs have
mara or marra, meaning a witch. It is unpardon-
able to make (p. 113) historic ' ezhdiha ' Turkish ;
everyone knows the origin of this Persian word,
the old Bactrian and intensely Aryan az-i-dahdka>
the biting snake ; the aki, the midgardsorm, the
zohak of Firdausi — slain, according to Zendavestan
Q
226 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
tradition, by Thraetavna (Indra). Curiously enough,
the Illyrian Slavs still retain azdaja (pron.
'azhdaya') for a 'dragon.' The CAMEL,1 with capi-
tals (p. 151), as if alluding to Henri Heine's 'Great
Camel Question,' is, we are assured, ' Turanian ; '
when the Semitic jamal — pronounced, probably, by
the Jews and Phoenicians, and certainly by the
modern Bedawin, ' gamal ' — became the kamel-os of
the Greeks. It may explain Camillus, but if so, the
word is, like Cadmus, Semitic. Of the four test-
words, ' on which the whole case as to the Ugric
affinities of Etruscan might safely be rested '
(pp. 93-113) — kulmu (which Corssen reads culsu,
p. 380), vanth, hinthial, and nahum — the second and
third are interpreted by the wildest processes. Vanth
(thanatos f) relies solely upon the ' Turkish ' fdni
(p. 102) and ' vanij ready to perish ' (p. 103) ; the
former being pure Arabic, and the latter a corrup-
tion of the active form fdni. Hinthial loses half
its superficial resemblance to the Finnic haltin (or
haldia, p. 107), 'which is, letter for letter, the same
1 I regret that no one has answered my questions in the Athenaum
(March, 1874) concerning the Etruscan camel, whether it be the
Northern (two-humped) or the Southern. And it is even more to be
regretted that in the Lost Tombs of Tarquinii (Dennis, i., 348) no
notice was taken of the elephant being African or Asiatic.
LANGUAGE. 227
as the Etruscan word,' when we compare its other
form 'phinthial ' ; nor can we ' identify ' it (p. 109),
with ' the Turkish ghyulghe (gyulgeJi), a shadow,'
or break it into hin-thi-al, 'the image of the child
of the Grave' (p. in). Manitou (p. 136) is cer-
tainly not 'the North American heaven god : it is
simply the haltia of the Finns ; the phantasm which
resides in every material object. To such informa-
tion (p. 102), as 'the suffix d<?rt(!) in Turkish
commonly denotes abstract nouns ' we can only reply
'Pro-di-gious!' The four Arabic words melekyut
(malakiyyat, from malik), munidat (corrupted), nejdet,
and neddmet, quoted in support of this doctrine, end
with what grammarians call the Ha el-masdar (h of
abstraction). A man must be Turan-smitten, must
have caught a Tartar, to find (p. 1 24) that ' the title
of the Russian Emperor, the Tzar, is doubtless of
Tartaric origin ; ' and perhaps he would say the
same of Caesar and Kaiser. But, seriously, is all
history thus to be thrown overboard ? And why,
in the name of common sense, should we compare
the ' Indian Menu ' with Mantus, Minos, and
Manes'? (p. 122). Why, again, should not Kharun
be Charon, instead of Kara (black), and lun, an
abraded form of aina, a " spirit, or of jumt god " ' ?
**8 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
(p. 1 1 8). The derivation (p. 160) of the Etruscan
mack (one),1 though ' safe ground to tread on '
(p. 174), is another marvel. It proceeds from the
Turkic bar-mack, a finger (tzsAparmak or pdrmaK],
and the ' Turkish ' (!) mikh lab, ' the clawed foot of a
bird or animal,' i.e., the noun of instrument in Arabic
from the triliteral root khalaba, ' he rent/ So in our
vernacular the fish^/z perhaps comes from yfo-ger.
And yet this conglomerate of errors is made to take
a crucial part in the Turanian scheme ; it is the basis
of interpreting the ' invaluable ' (Campanari) dice
of Toscanella, now in the Cabinet des Medailles,
Paris, where words, taking the place of pips,
form, according to some scholars, an adjuration or
prayer, to others a name and a gift. Lord Craw-
ford explains this (bogus) ' Rosetta Stone ' of Mr.
Taylor by an adjuration which also contains an echo
of the current names of numerals in Japhetan, if not
Teutonic, speech.
1 Curious to say the only dialect in which Mack means one, is the
'Sim' of the Gipsies (see ' Anthropologia,' p. 498, vol. i), probably
derived from the Greek /uia, whilst ' Machun ' is two. Judged by its
numerals, and by Prof, von W. Corssen's undoubted failure, Etruscan
has no affinity with any known tongue, and though Mr. Ellis suspected
a double system, this has not yet been proved.
LANGUAGE. 229
Mach (i) Thu (2) Zal (3)
(May the) Dice or ace of Zeus (two) (in) number (three)
Hut (4) Ki (twice) Sa (6)
fall twice sixes.
And the sprachforscher, Prof. Corssen proposes (pp.
28, 806) :—
Mach Thu-zal Huth Ci-Sa
Magus Donarium Hoc Cisorio fecit.
Mr. Ellis (Numerals as Signs of Primeval
Unify, and Peruvia Scythica, p. 158) makes Makh
(i), Thu (2, duo ?), Zal (3), Huth (4), Ki (5), and
Sa (6) ; Mr. Taylor, inverting the sequence, Mach
(i), Ki (2), Zrt/(3), Sa (4), Thu (5), and Huth (6).
The relics were found in 1848, and probably Mr.
Taylor is not answerable for the ' dodge ' which,
in announcing his book, omitted the date and left
the public to believe that, when the find was de-
scribed in 1848 by Dr. Emilio Braun (p. 60, Bull.
Arch&ol. Inst. of Rome], and afterwards of Orioli,
Steub, Lorenz, Morenz, Bunsen, Pott, and others, a
new ' key to Etruscan ' had lately been discovered.
But he is answerable for the tone of his reply
(' Athenaeum,' May 2, 1874) to the ' Gentle Lindsay'
('Athenaeum,' April u, 1874) — a painful contrast
with the courtesy of the 'earl's blood.'
230 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
Such are the process of ' exhaustion ' or ' elimina-
tion ; ' the far-fetched ' affinities ; ' the broadest con-
clusions on the narrowest of bases ; the ' curious,' or
rather supposed, ' coincidences,' the guess-work of
an unwary philologer ; the plausible agnation ; the
perverted ingenuity — such as holding ancient nume-
rals to be fragments of ancient words denoting
members of the body — and explaining the stone
circles round tumuli as the survivals of tent-weights,
which affiliate Etruscan with Altaic. These
' picklocks or skeleton keys ' do not open the lock
of the dark chamber, and the ' secret is locked with
more than adamantine power.' The whole volume
is a simple confusion of all scientific etymology, and
its ' abrasion-doctrine ' might be applied as profit-
ably to deriving roast beef from plum-pudding. The
' cumulative arguments ' which make the Rasenna
Ugrians are mere sorites of errors called analogies,
and exactly the same defects have been noted in the
author's ' Words and Places.' Prof. Corssen, perhaps
the profoundest Etruscologue of his age, even
asserted that of twenty-two numerals which Mr.
Taylor has claimed as proofs of the connexion be-
tween Etruscan and the Altaic branch of the Tura-
nian family of tongues, as many as eighteen are not
LANGUAGE. 231
even Etruscan, and, of the four remaining, three are
pronouns, and one is a proper name.1
Finally, in his preface (p. vii.), the ' Livingstone
of linguists,' as a certain reviewer entitles him, was
' conscious of the shortcomings ' of his book ; in the
Reviews he fought his ' free fight ' more obstinately
for its errors, its hallucinations, and its ignorance
than most men have fought for their truths. I was
not a little amused after noticing his contradictions
about the existence of Etruscan temples to read
the diatribe ('Athenaeum,' June 6, 1874) about my
' utter recklessness in making groundless accusa-
tions.' Let me ask, with the distinguished Arabist
Prof. Wright, quid plura f
The Family Pen has never been employed worse
than in writing ' Etruscan Researches.' Yet by
substituting a scatter of colonists from Asia Minor,
either Lydian or Lydo- Phoenician, for the pure
Turanian, we may find in Mr. Taylor a useful
picture of Etruscan life.
The conclusions which we draw from our actual
1 Prof. Corssen's numerals are Italian : — Uni (i), Teis (2), Trinache
(3), Chvarthu (4), Cuinte (5), Sesths (6), Setume (7), Untave (8),
Nunas (9), Tesne (10), Tesne eka (u), and Tisnteis (20). Perhaps
these may be the Italiot, used synchronously with the Lydo-Etruscan
numbers.
232 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
state of knowledge concerning the Etruscan tongue
are — i. That it may possibly be proved 'Italiot';
2. That its origin and its affiliation are at pre-
sent mysterious as the Basque ; 3. That, whereas
almost all previous authorities had advocated some
form of the great Indo-European speech, Mr. Taylor
has made himself a remarkable ' Turanian ' excep-
tion ; and 4. That certain Finnish ' affinities '
deserve scientific investigation.
INSCRIPTIONS. 233
SECTION VI.
INSCRIPTIONS.
THE three great finds, Villanova, the Certosa, and
Marzabotto, have made but one real addition to the
inscriptive literature of the Etruscans. Whilst the
Central and the Campanian Federations proved rich,
the Circumpadan has shown itself exceptionally poor
in this point, much resembling the Phoenicians, whom
Prof. Calori assigns to the Etruscans as ancestry.
The citizens of Sidon and Tyre were probably great
writers of ledgers, invoices, and such matters, but
how few are the important epigraphs which they
have left us ! In this point they offer a curious
contrast with their immediate neighbours, the Egyp-
tians and the Assyrians.
At Villanova no engraved record was found
beyond the broad arrow, the pJueon of heraldry,
possibly representing the letter £ in two shapes —
\J7 (' La Necropoli di Vill.,' p. 52). V (ibid. p. 56).
As a maker's mark (?) it has been detected, not
234
THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
only in the other two
diggings, but also at
Adria, Mantua, Mo-
dena, and Reggio.
It is otherwise at
the Certosa, and hap-
pily so, as the single
important inscription
(see p. 240) is able
to remove all doubts
about the Etruscani-
city of the noble dis-
coveries. The accom-
panying illustration is
borrowed from a fac-
simile in lithograph
(plate ix.) by Prof.
Calori, who, after Fa-
bretti, translates it
(p. 4) : — ' I am the se-
pulchre of Tanaquil
(Tankhe) wife ofTitul-
lius.' This feminine
name began to appear
at Chiusi, and it tho-
INSCRIPTIONS. 235
roughly establishes the Etruscan character of Old
Felsina.
Cav. Zannoni (' Sugli Scavi della Certosa/ pp. 2 7,
54) tells us that a rough stela showed the letters IAN,
perhaps to be read, as at Monte Alcino, from right to
left, NAI ; a similar cippus bore the letters ITVand NIM,
the latter in red paint, whilst the largest and most per-
fect specimen of these noble headstones had IA>|AN
inscribed under the horses' hoofs. The sigli or
marks upon pottery found at the Certosa are about
fifty, and they have been sent for publication to
the celebrated Professor Ariodante Fabretti, who
proposes to publish them in the ' Aggiunta,' or
sequel to his ' Corpus Inscript. Ital. Antiq. ^vi.'
Many fictiles are also inscribed. The familiar
KAAE and (HO HAIZ ?) KAAOS often occurs ; it is
repeated six times upon the largest tazza, suggest-
ing nuptial gifts to women, or presents to the
' beautiful boy/
Cav. Zanetti (ibid. p. 39) offers the following
scatter of sigli (marks) and graffiti : —
236
THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
then
At the base of the vases
,/VEKV,
~I
Upon a tazza
rr \
were IT -P O S-/A A O an<^ PEVO : anc^ uPon tne kelebe of
the two quadrigcE, one face shows before the charioteer
| K A. ^ > between the horses' hoofs
^ h x 5 an(^ fronting the same appear
S J ^ * • The other side offers also
>Q +- t K
are 0 « fl 1^
0 * v * n
facing the charioteer
o. v * " f
horses' hoofs ^ 4> A *t >
with o V *
•*• ; and between the
| in front of them.
The circle, it will be remarked, concludes every line. The following
two words are of pure Etruscan type.
appears
INSCRIPTIONS. 237
upon a pot-cover of brown clay, and A \\ \f
upon a red fragment.
The Etruscan alphabet is still a debated sub-
ject, especially in the matter of the two sibilants. Mr.
Murray believes that the fact of their being double
( M and S) points to an age when the Greeks had not
abandoned the Samech (D) as well as the Shin
(tP = ^ or •). The Etruscan alphabet of
Bomarzo (Dennis, i. 225 ; compare with the
Pelasgic or archaic Greek graffiti ; and with the
primers ii. 54, and ii. 138) begins, like all the Semitics,
with Alif (Alpha). The next three do not follow the
Hebrew form retained by the Arabs in their chro-
nological Abjad (A, B, J, D), and by the Greeks
with certain modifications. The three following are
regular, Hutti (H, Th, the Etruscan and archaic
Greek ©, the Arabic k, and I or Y), and the
L, M, N, are the Arabic Kalaman, omitting only,
while the old Greek and the Lycian (Fellows) retain,
the first. Then Saafas (S, Oin or Ayn, P or F,
and S= £, in Hebrew Tzaddi y) is preserved only
in two Etruscan letters P and S (M), and the eighth
word Karashat (K, R, SH, and T) is likewise
reduced to R, S (Sh ? 2) and T. This certainly
THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
suggests that the second sibilant was aspirated
(= Sh), while the absence of O is distinctly Arabic.
At Marzabotto, besides the pottery marks, we
have the following three specimens : —
i.
Aurssa (proper name) on a fibula.
1. Archaic Etruscan inscrip-
tions ('Akius') on the bottom of a
clay pot found at Marzabotto.
2. Fragment of a clay tablet
found in a ' funereal well ' at
Marzabotto.
INSCRIPTIONS. 239
The other four Bologna inscriptions, given in
the ' Secondo supplemento alia raccolta delle anti-
chissime iscrizioni italiche ' (per cura di Ariodante
Fabretti, Roma — Torino — Firenze presso i Fratelli
Bocca, Librai di S. M. 1847) are the following : —
(No. i Plate.)
i.
circularly inscribed upon the bottom of a red-clay
pot found at the Certosa. Velthur is an Etruscan
praenomen in the inscriptions of Tarquinii ; and,
as the letters are evidently traced with the tool
before the vase was burnt, it would appear to be the
name of the maker.
2.
(No. 2 Plate.)
was forwarded, like the rest, by Cav. Zannoni to
Prof. Fabretti in Dec. 1872. It is inscribed upon a
fragment of a great dolium, found on the Arnoaldi
property, near the Certosa ; the letters are eight
centimetres long, and are held to be part of the
THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
name of the Bolognese artificer at Marzabotto,
which Fabretti (' Corp. Inscr. Ital.' No. 46) reads
Nrus, and not Umrus, e.g.
Mi (sii) ti banyyilite titlalus, appeared copied from
a clay model in ' Primo suppl.' to the ' Corpo delle
antichissime iscrizioni italiche,' p. 2, note i. ; then
reduced to one-third natural size in the ' Atti della
R. Accademia delle Scienze,' vii. 894, and lastly
lithographed in the second supplement (plate No. 3).
It is remarkable for the squared form of the A.1
4-
Ml MV^Q A 5| M 1 3 = Veipi Kanmmis,
1
is inscribed above the two human figures, feminine
on the right and masculine to the left, upon a great
sepulchral stela from the Scavi Arnoaldi. Evidently
the sculptor had no space for the letter 1 (V), as
if he had begun from left to right, whereas the
reading is the reverse. Here we may understand
Vibia, Carmonii ^lxor.
1 The facsimile is given in page 228.
INSCRIPTIONS. 241
5-
is inscribed on a figured ^/^ at the Certosa cemetery.
The upper line, which contained some twenty letters
cut into a band, is much injured ; the lower, which
separates the two human figures, is read easily
enough. ' Luchma,' probably an archaic form, like
Luchumes and Lucumu, is not without interest to
those who study the relations between Upper and
Central Etruria, which are daily developing them-
selves. The final syllable V>/ (hi) recalls to mind
the prsnomen V-4/Vy (Luchii) read upon a fictile
urn at Chiusi (' Corp. Inscr. Ital.,' No. 597 bis r).
242 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
SECTION VII.
MODERN BOLOGNESE TONGUE.
THE contadinesca favella Bolognese is little known
in England, where Goldoni has made the witty
Venetian dialect tolerably familiar. Mr. Greville
(' Memoirs/ i. 404) simply remarks that ' the dialect
is unintelligible,' whilst Mezzofanti assured him that
it is ' forcible and expressive.' These local families,
which are numerous throughout the peninsula, may
hardly be compared with those of our counties,
even with the difference of cultivation ; they are
rather what the speech of Holland is to that of
Germany. Whilst we have, or rather had till late
years, little, if any, written monuments, the Italian
variants are rich in local literature. For example,
the only book familiar to our forefathers of what the
Gipsies now call the Peero-dillin-tem, foot-giving,
that is, 'purring ' or kicking county, and known to the
great conversational linguist of Bologna was ' Thomas
and Mary.' This generation has done much in cul-
MODERN BOLOGNESE. 243
rivaling the rustic muse ; yet the detached private
publications, as opposed to those printed by the
English Dialect Society and other learned bodies,
are generally confined to their own parts, or, at
most, to the curious in philology.
The fact of the Italian favelle being literary
and not analphabetic, containing dictionaries and
classical poems, may account, to a certain extent,
for their universal use even in educated and culti-
vated society. At home we should marvel to hear
a dinner-party of ladies and gentlemen suddenly
lapse into the broadest Yorkshire or Somersetshire,
and it is only an occasional ' original ' who persists
in retaining his or her country brogue. In Italy
the resident stranger is accustomed to the appear-
ance of the local dialect whenever the company
becomes excited or confidential, and he generally
has the sense to learn it, as otherwise he would be
utterly unintelligible to the peasantry, and partly so
to the lower order of citizens.
Italians, who hold to ' Italia una' as the first
article of faith, consider the diversitas linguarum to
be non academica sed vere Babylonica, and denounce
the practice as an unmitigated evil. I am disposed,
despite all sentiment, to agree with them. Differ-
R 2
244 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
ence of dialect tends to maintain a species of bi-
lingualism, and history tells us that bi-lingual peoples
have done next to nothing in literature, and very
little in anything else. Sometimes a genius, like
Milton, may write in Latin and Italian as well as in
English ; a Camoens may poetise in Portuguese and
Spanish, or a Swinburne may be equally happy in
French and English. These are rare exceptions —
brains big enough to contain two and even three
tongues. But the multitude has enough and more
than enough to do with mastering one. It is not
only race that has prevented Wales from producing
a single writer, in verse or in prose, whose name has
become a household word to the world ; and senti-
mentalists who, like Mr. Gladstone, advocate the
Eisteddfod, offer, methinks, the worst advice of
their unreal and aesthetic school. The cultivation of
local dialects is the strongest engine for maintaining
those racial distinctions which the whole course of
modern civilisation does its best to obliterate : the
worst symptom in Jewish progress is their being
constantly reminded of the words of Moses, ' sepa-
rated for ever from all the people on the face of the
earth.' Such a study was well for that divided land,
that mere ' geographical expression ' in which the
MODERN BOLOGNESE. 245
first Lord Lytton (' Last Days of Pompeii') found
' the only hope of Italy.' How potent the instrument
may be found in political warfare, in alienating man
from man may be seen in the battle of races' at
Trieste. The Italianissimi party, opposed to the
Tedeschi and the Pan-Slavic, carefully supports half-
a-dozen weeklies or flying-sheets written in the cor-
rupt Venetian, dashed with a few words of Friuiano,1
which distinguishes the city of Charles VI. and Maria
Theresa. Here we had or have, to mention only
a few, ' La Baba ' (the grandmother) which first
appeared ; 'El Portinajo ' ; 'El Poveretto ' ; 'El
Rusignol ' (the nightingale), which ceased to sing
in 1873 ; and ' El Ciabiatin' (the cobbler, who also
acts as house-porter), which has lately become ' El
Triestin.' Its rival is at present the ' Gazzettino
del Popolo.' 2
1 The borrowing from Friuiano is mostly of words. For this
dialect the curious reader will consult the Poesiis de Fieri Zorntt
(Pietro Zorutti), published at Udine. Some of the poems are much
admired and deserve translation : an especial favourite is the Ana-
creontic beginning
' Piovesine, fine, fine.'
2 I know only two books of proverbs in the Triestine dialect : i.
Dialoghi Piacevoli of the (Canonico) D. Giuseppe Mainati, with map
and letters of Mgr. Bonomo, which begin with the :6th century (1511),
the whole translated into Italian (Trieste, G. Marenigh, 1828) ;
and 2. Sa^gio di Proverbi Triestini, by Angelo C. Cassani (Trieste,
Colombo Coen, 1860).
246 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
The ' Bulgnes ' is one of the rudest of its kind, so
' tronco e mozzato/ (truncated and elided), that at first
strangers, familiar with Italian, can hardly understand
a word of it, especially when spoken ' stretto.' For
instance : 'A n' vuoi t' m' in parl, S'gnor ' or ' M'sier '
(I won't have you speak to me about it, Sir) rapidly
pronounced, sounds almost like one word. Again, 'Ai
me ne seng meng brisa (io non ne so mica ') with a
double negative, in Italian an affirmative; and, lastly,
to die is not morire, but ' andar in squezz ' (to go
squash or in dissolution). Yet it has its classics, such
as the works of Dr. Lotto Lotti, which run through
a multitude of editions ; nor are collections of local
poetry disdained by the learned of the present day.
In the list of modern M.A.'s and Professors at
' Blogna,' or ' Bulogna,' I see that the Senator
Conte Commendatore Carlo Pepoli published a
' Discorso Academico ' upon the patriotic subject ' Di
taluni canti dei Popoli.' The Professor of Italian
Literature, Cav. Giosue Carducci, has also printed, in
periodicals, specimens ' Di alcune poesie popolari
Bolognesi del Secolo xm. inedite ' (Bologna, 1866),
and ' Di alcune rime antiche ritrovate nei memoriali
dell'Archivio notarile di Bologna' (Bologna, 1872-73).
There is a large quarto vocabulario, or dictionary of
MODERN BOLOGNESE. 247
Bolognese-Italian, and Italian-Bolognese, by Claudio
Ermanno Ferrari (publisher, Nicola Zanichelli,
Bologna, 1858 ; price 4 lire). My kind friend Prof.
Gian Giuseppe Bianconi gave me three volumes,
whose contents may not be uninteresting to the
general reader.
The oldest is a rude little duodecimo of 158
pages, entitled ' La Togna, Commedia Rusticale,
tradotta (it was originally in the Florentine dialect)
dal timido Accademico dubbioso, recitata nella Villa
di Fossolo, e dedicata all' illustriss. Signora, la
Signora Alexandra Bianchetti, Gambalunga, ne'
Zaniboni. Con Privilegio. In Bologna, per Giacomo
Monti, MDCLIV. Con licenza de' superiori.' The
imprimatur appears at the end, signed by the
' Archiep. Bonon. & Principe,' and by two members
of the 4 Inquisitionis Bononiae.' The two opening
sonnets, ' Felsina alia Togna,' and ' Sunnett fatt pr
Caprizzi, in lod d' la Togna,' will give the measure of
elision and truncation ; for instance, in these lines —
E s' in Fiurenza cun fadigh, e spes (fatigue and expense)
Fu zk mustra la gloria dal to inzegn,
Qui in Bulogna, und i Studi ban al so Regn
Thara gloria mazor, e piu pales (more evident),
we may remark that the pronouns me or mi; ti, lu,
nit, vie, and lori or ei are used everywhere between
248 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
Dalmatia and Bologna. Mi is remarkable for
occurring in so many different and far-divided
languages ; for instance, in Slav and Teutonic, where
mic/i is older than ich. The Bolognese use A or
ai for the first person, only where it would be em-
phatic. The elision of the last syllable in the noun
(inedgh for medico], in the infinitive (guardd for
guardare), and in the participle (battu for dattuto)
is similar on both sides of the Adriatic. We have
also the same omission of the liquids, as in cavai
for cavalli, and maraveia for maraviglia.
The country girl La Togna (Antonia), daughter
of Barba (Gaffer) Bigh (Biagio, Giles), is loved
by Minghett d'Greguor, and she loves Sandrin, whilst
she, or rather her father, is proposed to by Petronio.1
The latter is a zdatin (citizen), speaking, of course,
pure Italian, and compelled by the master passion
to forget his morgue of the i yth century. Yet he
cannot help quoting (p. 108) —
Allo sprone i Caualli, al fischio i Cani
Ed al bastone intendono i Villani.
The contrast of the dialects leads, in the unsmooth
1 The name is intensely Etruscan, as we learn from the tombs of
the Petruni family at Perugia. La Togna in the fisherman's dialect of
Trieste would mean ' a float.'
MODERN BOLOGNESE. 249
course of courtship, to such quid pro quo as the
following (p. 36) : —
Petr. — Non vedi, come per te languisco ?
Togna. — Mo, ch' vien a dir languiss? D' gli anguill ? (eels ?)
Petr. — N6, vuol dir ch' io moro !
Togna. — Un Mor (Moor) blanch', 6 negr ?
Another zintilhuomin> also a citizen pour rire, is
Cintio Musico, who writes songs for his friend ; and
the valet Malgaratin, the 'seruitore del cio di Petronio.'
There are two ridiculous old women, Ze Drathie
(Aunt or Gammer Dorothy), and Ze Betta (Elizabeth),
who recite ' sympathetic verses ' when La Togna
faints under her troubles. After the usual peripetia
of love and cross-love, caused by the ' Diaul dl'
Infern,' the conclusion is happy. Petronio is for-
bidden by his family to wed a rustic : Minghett,
after attempting suicide, consoles himself with Flippa,
whose ' Padr ' or ' Par ' is Barba Pasqual. There is
a general song and dance lasting through six pages,
and Sandrin dismisses the audience before living
happily with La Togna ever after. Here, evi-
dently, we have a pre-shadowing of Goldoni in
Florentine and Bulgnes, instead of in Venetian.
The next is a more ambitious production, and
Professor Bianconi considers it the most correct
in point of orthography — a trifle which, as in
250 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
Milton's day, has hardly been placed upon a settled
basis. It is entitled 'La Liberazione di Vienna
assediata dalle armi Ottomane, Poemetto giocoso ;
e la Banzuola, dialoghi sei, del Dottore Lotto Lotti,
in lingua popolare Bolognese' (no date but 1746
in the last plate), We gather from the preface
that the work of this citizen, ' a good Catholic,'
has often been reprinted, despite the poetical licence
of certain sentiments. It is an old-fashioned octavo
of 248 pages, with 12 copper-plates, including a
burlesque frontispiece, where Fame flogs a kicking
Pegasus : the illustrations are curious enough for
the costumes and views of the city in the last
century. The dialect is mixed : in those days
there were various phrases, pronunciation, accent,
and proverbial sayings in the several quarters of
the city, especially in those which, being nearest to,
had most intercourse with, Romagna, Lombardy,
and Tuscany. Moreover, the filatoglieri (silk-
workers) had their own variety. Similarly we find
at Venice two distinct dialects, one in the Cana-
vecchio (Old Canal) to the north ; the other in that
peculiar region the Castello, south : the same is the
case even in Rome, where the Trasteverini do not
speak like their eastern fellow-citizens.
MODERN BOLOGNESE. 251
The first part (pp. 1-88) is entitled in Bolognese
' Ch' n' ha cervell ava gamb ' (who hath no brains
has legs), ' o sia La Liberazione di Vienna.' It is
preceded by the normal sonnet ' Dal Sgnor Duttor
Jacm' Antoni Buzzichell,' which ends thus : —
Dla to penna mi ammir la gran furtuna
Ch' sa in t' un medesm temp, grav e burlesca,
E battr sod (to hit hard), e andar sbactand la LUNA (to
chaff the moon, i.e. the Crescent.)
The poemetto, relating the attack of Sulayman
the Magnificent with his 300,000 men, is divided
into five cantos, each preceded by its argument ;
and the following is a specimen of the first stanza,
which opens like Ariosto : —
A cant la stizza, al fugh, gl' arm, e la rabbia
D' qlor ch' in t' al nostr vlen cazzar i pj,
D' qla zent qsi dsprpusta, ch' sempr s'arrabbia :
0 pr dir mii d' qla maledetta znj
Ch' aveva fatt pinsir d' grattarz la scabbia
Ben ch' a n' aven' scador, prch' Damndj
Ch' e sempr in nostr ajut, e in nostra dfsesa,
1 ammurto la candela ch' era impresa.1
1 I sing the wrath, the fire, the arms, and the rage
Of those who would thrust their feet into our country,
Of that folk so inconsequent, which is always in a fury :
Or, better to say, of that accursed brood
Which had thought to have scratched its itching,
Although without much chance, for the Lord (Dominiddio)
Who is ever in our aid and our defence,
Put out the candle which they had lit.
252 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
In stanza 4 of the same canto we have an
expression which has lately been made world-
famous by Prince Bismarck :
E ch' la s' ave da frizr in t' al so grass.1
The first canto marshals the Christian and the
infidel forces, including ' Mustafa prim Visir,' the
' Bassas ' of various places — Mesuputamia, Bosnia,
Damasc, and Alepp — Msir Agha of the Gianizr, and
others. In the second there is a dialogue between
the Devil (Diavl or Belzebu), the Re Pluton, and
Povr Macumett, who is called to relate in presence
of ' 1' Deita ch' assistn ai argumint ' why the
Turk attacks Leopold Imperator. Mohammed is
opposed by a certain ' Squizimbraga, un duttor' —
the doctor, professor, or savant is, of course, a
favourite gibe with the town versus gown, and
the historic ' duttour Balanzon/ who was a real
personage of that name, still appears at every
carnival. Macumett so pleases Pluto that he
receives as a gift ' una furca antigh, antigh.' In
Canto 3 we have the siege and the sufferings of
' i puvr Chstian ' ; the 4th shows the relieving
army of Sobieski (1683) guided by ' Gabriell Anzlin
1 And which had to fry in its own grease.
MODERN BOLOGNESE. 253
Bndett' appearing in ' s' la muntagna d' Kalem-
bergh,' and putting the Ottomans to flight. The
1 Quint Cant ' sings the triumph of the Christians.
E i Bulgnis al so solit in dardella
Con al fugh portn' al cil 1' ovra si bella.1
The 'loot' is also carefully enumerated. The
pocmetto has its merits, but it can hardly com-
pare with the ' Rape of the Tub,' by Tassoni,
whom Dickens (' Italian Notes ') confounded with
Tasso. ' La Secchia Rapita ' proposed for itself the
patriotic task of ridiculing petty feuds about
nothing between neighbouring cities; and its
admirable wit, intermingled with charming poetical
descriptions, found a worthy echo in some of
Byron's latest masterpieces.
The second part (pp. 93-248) is entitled
' Remedi per la Sonn, da lezr alia Banzola,2 Dialogh
S j ' (' cures for sleep, to be read on the bench or foot-
stool, 6 dialogues '). It is addressed ' Alle Oneste
Cittadine di Bologna,' by the 'Vecchietto,' Lotto
Lotti, who quotes for their benefit ' Marc' Aurelio's '
1 And the Bolognese, after their fashion, in great excitement
By their fiery valour raise their noble work to the sky.
2 The banzuola or banzola is quite Bolognese, and corresponds
with the scamnum or low stool of the Romans ; it is also used for a
bench.
254 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
saying : ' The retired life of women bridles the
tongues of men.' The author was induced to collect
the various ' bizzarie ' of sentiment, sayings, and pro-
verbs, by the example of Signor Carlo Maria Mazzi,
who published learned and amusing comedies in the
Milanese dialect. All the dialogues are in irregular
verse, rhymed and unrhymed ; the persons, men and
women, vary from two to six. They have also their
' moral ' : No. I., ' Al Servitor,' teaches to distrust
servants who are apt to chatter about the secrets of
the house. No. II., ' Gropp,' e macchia1 is a warn-
ing against gadding about. No. III., ' La Cantatriz,'
encourages mothers to teach their daughters music
and singing, but warns them against the cupidity of
husbands who would make their children profes-
sionals. The music lesson (p. 159) is good : —
Cricca (the ' Mestr '). — Ossu, sgnora, ch' la vigna
Za dsen su : fa, fa.
Sandrina (Alessandrina, the pupil) sings : —
L> empio oggetto da me abborito
Trovi scherno, e non pieta !
Cricca.— O vj su alligrament.
Trovi sche-e-e-e,
Sandrina. — E-e-e-e non pieta.
Cricca. — Pieta, sol, db.
1 ' Far gropp' e maccia ' (not ' macchia '), i.e. ' to do knot and stain,'
is still a saying at Trieste when a man finishes off a business at
once.
MODERN BOLOGNESE. 255
No. IV. dialogue, ' La Miseria,' bids the gude-
wife save money against a rainy day, as hus-
bands often go to ruin. ' Al Bagord ' (Le
Noceur], No. V., illustrates the saying of ' Dione
Filosofo,' that 'la Donna civile non solo dev'
essere onesta, ma non deve dar cagione alcuna, che
in lei si sospetti mai cosa disonesta ' — familiar to
England through 'Caesar's wife.' No. VI. and last
is ' L' ippucondria,' in which the wife is taught how
to treat a hypochondriac husband : ' Scannacapon
ammala ' is relieved by the contrivances of ' Buni-
fazia, so mujer' and Mado Pira, the servant-woman,
rather than by the medgh (medico) and spzial
('pothecary). ' Finis ' is preceded immediately by —
Pira. 1
Scann. I Baslaman a Sgnerj.
Bunif. J
The author has succeeded in fulfilling the diffi-
cult promise of his preface (p. 96). ' In tale imi-
tazione pero ho proccurato, per quanto ho potuto, di
scansare certi equivoci sporchi, ed indecenti di parole,
che la favella Bolognese suol partorire, perche, tolti
da voi ' (to the citizenesses), ' verrei ad offendere la
vostra modestia, ed a svegliarvi quella verecondia,
che sul vostro volto e la Rocca della vostra
bellezza.'
256 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
The third is a little octavo of 96 pages, ' Poesi
in Dialett Bulgneis D' Camell Nunzi :' Bulogna,
Stampari Militar, 1874. It consists of sonnets, of
various pieces, epigrams, &c., and, finally, of the say-
ings of Ze-Rudell. Of the sonnets, the most
amusing are the ' Matrimoni ed lusfett con la
Rusali ' and the ' Pensir ed lusfett per la nascita
d' un fiol d' zeinqu mis.' The unfortunate ' Balanzon '
also appears on two occasions, ' Pr' una strenna
del Duttour Balanzon,' and ' Dscours fatt pr' al
Duttour Balanzon.' Ze Rudell discourses on
various themes, such as ' in Lod dla Puleint ' (in praise
of polenta, or porridge) ; ' in Mort d' un Toe '
(tacchino, or turkey) ; ' in Mort d' un Oca/ and on
the ' Manira d' cunzar 1'insala ' (to prepare a salad).
The third (p. 58) begins with —
Dies ires, dies ilia.
L'Oca e morta e piu non strilla
S' find 1' oli in dla luzerna,
Pace a lei, requiem eterna ! 1
In a rhyme (p. 61), addressed 'all' Illustrissem
SgnorCommendatourProfessour Franzesc Rizzol/we
find the following sharp political allusions (1866) : —
1 The goose is dead and no more hisses,
Ended the oil in its lantern,
Peace to its manes, requiem eternal !
MODERN BOLOGNESE. 257
Arcurdav (he perceived) ch' fra i amala (sick)
Che P Italia ha un mal in dl' uter,
Ch' 1' an s'andass mai a
Mo sperain ch' 1' ha nnira"
E d' sta pesta guarird (will be cured of this evil),
Tolt da R6mma al mal Franzeis (Morbus Gallicum)
L' amala' 1' sintrd mane peis. (will not feel the worse).
The following is a specimen of the epigrams
(p. 27) :-
Un Muntanar mandd a Bulogna un fiol (figliuolo),
Per cavari un Duttour, mo 1' impar6 (but he learned)
Dop zeinqu ann, che lii fava al lardarol : (that he was a charcutier]
Non ostant con al teimp, al s' rassegno,
Digand (saying), ' le mei (better) ch' al seppa frd i salam (salami)
Che un Asen (asino) frd i Duttur ch' as' mor ed fam.'
In these extracts from the 'Rem Bulgneisi ' it
would appear that the modern dialect is growing
broader, with more of the sing - song. For in-
stance, ' duttour,' with emphasis on the penultimate
vowel, takes the place of ' duttor ' ; ; ztadein ' of
' ztadin ; ' ' Bulogna ' of ' Blogna ; ' and so forth. The
same is noticeable in the prose ; for instance, in the
first sentences of the preface : ' Tutt i liber del
mond hann una prefazion,' e la vrev (vorrei.) aveir
anca me. Le bein veira ch' an (that I do not)
so da ch' banda em prinzipiar' (on what side to
begin). ' A diro che la prefazion la fa 1'effett
del Wermutt, dl' asseinzi, dl' amaron e dl' antipast
premma del dsnar (before dinner), ch' i preparen
258 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
al stamg (stomach) a dar una bona magna ' (good
feed).'
My kind friend, Dr. Bianconi, further obliged
me with the following ' Detti popolari in dialett
Bolognese ' : —
1 . ' La piu trista roda del car (carro) 1' e quella
qu' zirla' (strida) — said of the bad workman who
complains of his tools, of much cry and little wool,
and of the noisy and pushing mediocrity.
2. ' L' e sempre mei (meglio) rusgar (rossichiare,
to gnaw) un os (osso) che un baston.' So the
Triestines say : ' Meyo rosigar un osso che un
baston.'
3. ' Quel sgnor 1' a fatt tant armesa (armaggio,
or preparations), e po al s' en anda con el piv in
tal sac.' So the Triestines, who must be visited
in the highly Conservative quarter called La 'Rena
(from the Roman arena or amphitheatre), have it :
' Se n' andato colle pive in sacco.' The piva is
the bag, the zampogna is the pipe, of the bag-pipe,
and when the former is not distended, the latter
sinks into it. The meaning is our popular saying
' he shut up.'
4. ' An s' i p6 diri una parola ch' el salta a la
grand ' (alia granata, that is in furore, or si stizza}.
MODERN BOLOGNESE. 259
Trieste prefers ' Che ghe (gli) vegna (venga) la mosc'
al naso ' (the fly to his nose) — said of a man who
has a peppery temper.
5. ' Fiol car (figlio caro) quand a' s' vol combinar
un' affair, b'sogna dar un colp a la bott (a blow to
the barrel) e un alter al sere ' (al cerchio, to the hoop)
— a cooper's metaphor for ' age quod agis.'
6. ' Eh ! la sra abilita anch questa, d' mudar el
rason cmod s' fa al bisacc ' (bisaccia, scrip or satchel).
This vulgar saying means that a man should be able
to change his intentions as easily as he carries or
deposes his (travelling) bag.
7. ' Avedi pazienzia (abbiate pazienza) : al ien
beli rason (they are good reasons), ma non caven un
ragn (ragno, a spider) d'in t'un bus ' (dal buco).
The Triestine form is ' Nol caveria una maladeta
(i.e., cosa, not worth a d ) dal muro : so the
latter, who make no difference between singular and
plural verbs, say —
E anche questi ve dig5 in confienza (confidence)
No i gaveva (essi non avevano) studia una maladeta.
8. ' Lu al dsior mei (parla meglio) qu' un liber
stiazza ' (stracciato, lacero}. This 'chaff' to a man
who talks like a (torn) book becomes in Triestino
' Lu (or el) parla meyo de un libro strazza,
S 2
260 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
9. ' Al s' 1' e giccia (egli se 1' e gettata) dri dal spal
(dietro le spalle) e bona nott ;' in Trieste, ' El se lo ga
butta drio le spalle, e buona notte, Siori ! ' (Signori) ;
applied to a man who gets rid of a business.
10. 'Cos' e mai sta pladour (rumore) b a fai ? '
(What's the meaning of all this row ?) The Triestines
say : ' Cossa xe 'sto baccan (i.e., baccanale) che fe ? '
In the terminal nunnation the stranger must be
careful to pronounce the third liquid rather after the
French nasal fashion (bombon), than the Italian and
English (man) : it most approaches the Spanish.
11. ' An basta aver rason, b'sogna trauer chi v'la
daga ' ; in Trieste, ' No basta aver razon, mabisogna
trovar chi vi la daga ' — it's not enough to be in the
right, you must find people to believe it.
Since my last visit to Bologna Prof. Bianconi
informs me that he has found one of the greatest
rarities produced by Bolognese typography of the
fifteenth century ; it is one of the two only copies,
the other being in Rome. The subject of the poem
is the jousting, or tournament,1 held at the venerable
1 From the ' Trattato sopra le Gioste ed i Tornei del Senatore
Berlingiero Sessi,' printed in the volume containing the ' Prosi degli
Accademici gelati' (Manolessi, Bologna, 1671), we learn that the first
tournament known in Italy took place at the old Etruscan capital in
A.D. 1147.
MODERN BOLOGNESE. 261
city on October 4, A.D. 1470, by order of ' Giovanni
(?) Bentivoglio, Signore della Citta.' The author,
Francesco Cieco of Florence, writes his 204 octaves
in rather rude and rustic Italian. He enters into the
minutest details concerning the sport ; he describes
the Piazza and the stockades with which it was
provided ; he records the various cities that supplied
combatants ; he relates how on one side the Benti-
voglio chose 60 knights, whilst as many were
opposed to them by Antonio Trotti di Alessan-
dria, Capitano dei Bolognesi ; he names the com-
batants ; he notes the various modes of weapons,
the harness, and the devices of the cavaliers, together
with the ornaments of the fair dames, whose beauties
he compares with the most famous charmers of
antiquity ; he narrates the order of the several gests,
and finally he leaves the victory with the ' parte
Bentivolesca.' This famous tournament was also
described by Giovanni Sabbattino degli Ariendi
(See Giordani's ' Almanacco Storico-Archeologico
Bolognese,' 1836; and Antonio Bertolini's 'Eccita-
mento,' November, 1838, p. 685).
The Bolognese copy of Francesco Cieco, a
small quarto, wants frontispiece, pagination, and
index : the experts remember that about 1470 the
262 THE ETRUSCAN MAN.
printing-press was introduced into Bologna by
Baldazzarre Azzoguidi, and, remarking that the types
are those adopted by this artist in his edition of
Ovid (A.D. 1471), they have concluded that the poem
was printed in the early part of the same year, or
shortly after the tournament was held. Prudential
reasons may be attributed to the suppression of the
printer's name.
I here end my study of the venerable ex-capital
of Northern Etruria, with the hope that readers
will take kindly into consideration the circumstances
under which it was written.
RICHARD F. BURTON.
WATSON'S HOTEL, BOMBAY : Feb. 15, 1876.
APPENDIX.
Resume of a Letter addressed to Signor W. Helbig, by Cav.
A. Zannoni, upon the bronze articles supposed to be razors
(printed by the Bullettino dell* Institute di Corrispondenza
Archeologica, anno 1875. Roma: coi tipi del Salviucci, a
Spese deir Institute), 1875.
You ask me in yours of the iQth inst. two questions :
1. Have the supposed razors been found in the Felsina
Necropolis ?
2. If so, what objects accompanied them, or, to be more
precise, did these implements occur together with pottery and
bronzes of the primitive type, as, e.g., those of Villanova,
or were they discovered with painted pottery and historical
subjects in black and red ?
Before answering you, allow me to submit an outline
of my discoveries in the Certosa diggings (1869).
I first found the four groups, numbering more than
400 sepulchres ; the great series of figured pottery, black
and red ; the unique bronze situla ; the many-figured
steles, and the first specimen of Etruscan writing. The
Certosa is, therefore, one great period in the life of
Felsina, ' prince of Etruria.'
But, as was pointed out in my report of October 2, 1871,
at the opening of the ' Museo Civico,' the Certosa 'finds'
no longer form thfe isolated discovery from which I had
deduced that, between our old monastery and Bologna, ran
264 APPENDIX.
a highway, with tombs grouped to the right and to the left,
showing several and successive epochs — in fact, the develop-
ment of Felsinean life. It appeared to me certain that
the earlier inhabitants would have pushed forward their
cemeteries from the limits of population, which, as my
discoveries in the Strada Pratello prove, represents a part
of the modern city ; and this, too, not only westward, but
to the other cardinal points. Evidently the citizens,
increasing in numbers and subject to social and political
changes, would deposit their dead in several and distinct
groups along the road, at increased distances of a hundred
yards or so ; sometimes above, at other times around, those
which preceded them. And therefore I expected to find
at least ten roadside groups between the two extreme
points, Bologna and the Certosa.
The fact of eight such groups coming to light have
proved my conjecture to be correct. Besides the four in
the Certosa proper, 1869, I discovered to the eastward —
that is, in the direction of Felsina — two more, below the
Arnoaldi property (end of September 1871); a seventh,
distributed under the Arnoaldi-Tagliavini farms and
the Certosa lane ; and, finally, an eighth (mid-August
1872), in the Benacci estate.
The Tagliavini find demanded fresh researches in
the contiguous Arnoaldi property, which presently yielded
another group. The first, of thirty-six sepulchres, pro-
duced very few figured vases, with red pottery, fibiilcs of
bronze and silver, and the remains of two cists. There
were some sculptured steles, far inferior in splendour to
those of the Certosa, but two had an especial value, on
account of their Etruscan inscriptions. This group, there-
fore, has the characteristics, without, however, the im-
portance, of the four which compose the Certosa find.
The sixth group (Tagliavini property) produced, as
APPENDIX. 265
first-fruits, four sepulchres, containing three skeletons, with
brown and red earthenware, and a dolium worked in
bands : its contents were burnt bones, silver fibula, and a
bronze knife. But it was a spark that kindled a mighty
flame. The adjacent Arnoaldi diggings, begun in early
December 1872, were continued till the end of June 1874,
and have already yielded 150 tombs. Here we gathered,
besides the brown and ruddy earthenware, a rich harvest
of pottery with graffiti geometrically worked in a large
and grandiose manner, and not wanting the usual ducks,
the doves, and even the monkey ; a great variety of
bronzes, such as fibula, and utensils, situla, cups, two cists
in repousse-work with bands and points, and, finally, a
sculptured stela with resetted crosses, resembling that of
Pisaro, consequently, those of the Certosa.
During last summer (1874), the lane which separates
the Arnoaldi and Tagliavini diggings, explored by me at
the expense of the municipality, produced eighty most
important tombs ; and the axis of the line apparently
corresponds with that of the cemetery, which extends on
both sides under the two farms. Here, more remarkably
than in No. 2, Arnoaldi group, emerged the luminous
epoch of Villanova, far richer sepulchres, proved by the
engraved potteries and bronze utensils ; two banded
cists, two others of repousse-\vor\z. with bands and points,
and two with representations of quadrupeds like the far-
famed situla of the Certosa, not to speak of the number
and beauty of the situla, the large bronze pins, the bronze
vases, and the utensils whose forms show remarkable
novelties.
The other Arnoaldi group (our No. 7) has yielded
hitherto sixteen sepulchres, identical with those of the
Certosa ; a large oxybaphon, a few other red-figured
potteries, also in the style of what we found at the
266 APPENDIX.
monastery ; a stela and the fragment of a second with a
bit of inscription.
But the history of Felsina returns to its origin in the
vast Benacci group, discovered in September 1873. Here
300 tombs show four epochs distinctly marked by their
stratification, namely : — i. An age preceding Villanova
(Pelasgian ? ) ; 2. The first era of Villanova (Umbrian ?) ;
3. Gallic ; and 4. Roman.
The pre-Villanovan epoch appears splendidly in the
five sepulchres, which I will presently describe ; in earthen-
ware with peculiar graffiti, and in special bronzes for
utensils, arms, and ornaments.
And now comes the first Villanovan age, with some en-
graved potteries and others whose type has not hitherto ap-
peared ; with an extraordinary quantity and variety of fibula,
armillcz, and bronze pins ; with bronze vases, amongst
which six are banded, some are worked with repousse
points, and one cist, festooned in repousse, bears little geese
like those stamped on the earthenware. The so-called
tintinnabula yielded by Villanova here appeared in greater
numbers ; they are evidently not bells, but articles of toilette.
The Gallic epoch has offered various very long sword-
blades, like those from the tumuli of Magny-Lambert ;
and bronze vases resembling the discoveries of Upper
Alsace (' Aus'm Werth der Grabfund von Wald-Algesheim ' ;
Bonn, 1870). For our present purpose I need not note the
Roman age.
Here, then, are the successive peoples and life-periods
of Felsina — Pelasgic, Umbrian, Etruscan, Gallic, and,
finally, Roman. The lower Benacci group shows the pre-
Villanovan (Pelasgic ?) and the early Villanovan age. The
Arnoaldi-Tagliavini and the Certosa lane record the
luminous epoch of the later Villanova ; the second stra-
tum proves the influence of the coming age, gradually
APPENDIX. 267
deteriorating in the first Arnoaldi group. In the
third it again rises, and it culminates in the four Certosa
groups.
After this sketch of my discoveries, I proceed to your
questions concerning the so-called ' razors ' ; and let me
at once state that the obtuseness of the edge, and the
small size of the articles, forbid our attributing such use to
them.1
These lunated articles were found only in one part of
the Certosa, the Campo degli Spedali, scattered over the,
sub-surface ; none appeared in seven of the groups : the
four Certosan (proper), the two Arnoaldi ; and the Ar-
noaldi-Tagliavini and Certosa lane. The Benacci diggings,
however, yielded ' razors' in nine tombs, of which five
belonged to the pre-Villanovan (Pelasgic ?), and four to
the early Villanovan epochs. The following is a succinct
description of the articles and their accompaniments.
Of the four early Villanovan tombs which yielded 'razors,'
No. i was a square fosse (o'/o metre x 070 metre), contain-
ing the large cinerary urn of Villanovan type, with burnt
bones, covered with its cup ; to the northwards were some
small brown and red pots, one of them engraved round the
rim with a zig-zag ornament, and with horizontal channellings
from mid-belly to bottom. A three-barbed fibula of bronze
and the ' razor ' were found with the bones.
No. 2 fosse was somewhat larger (roo metre x roo
metre) ; to the east stood the great ossuary (same type),
with engraved fibula, pins, and fragments of armillcz, all of
bronze ; westward lay some smaller brown pots ; and a
terra-cotta cist with bands still stood upright. The 'razor'
lay flat in the middle of the western side. It is not plain,
each face has three zones cut parallel with the blade-back ;
1 NOTE BY THE TRANSLATOR. — After seeing the Chinese blades,
little hatchets, I cannot attach importance to either of these objections.
268 APPENDIX.
the uppermost is straight, the central is a zig-zag, and the
lowest is in short and parallel perpendicular lines.
No. 3 fosse was of the same size as the second. The
ossuary (same type) was subtended northwards and south-
wards by brown and reddish pots ; there were only traces
of bronze fibula, and amongst the burnt bones lay the
' razor ' engraved with parallel lines along the back.
No. 4 was a little smaller (0*90 metre x 0*90 metre),
than the two latter. The ossuary had its cup-cover, and
near its mouth was a three-barred fibula like that of No. I ;
westward lay a few small vases, of which one was zig-
zagged in relief at the rim. Upon the burnt bones of the
ossuary stood a few engraved fibula and some bronze
pins. Among the bones was the ' razor,' much oxidised.
In these four cases, then, the ' razor ' is always inside
the ossuary ; it is accompanied by fibula, bronze pins,
brown and red earthenware, and a few engraved potteries.
It remains to consider it in connection with the pre-
Villanovan (Pelasgic ?) age.
No. i tomb was walled with slabs of molassa or yellowish
sandstone ; the inside (i metre x 070 metre) showed a
cup-covered ossuary, engraved after the Grecian fashion.
Upon the bones lay the 'razor,' together with certain
twisted bronze fibula of novel form, and the last found
was a very long pin, also of bronze.
No. 2, similarly walled, showed the great ossuary
opening to the north-west. It was similarly worked, and
covered with a cup, also engraved, upon which lay an
amber-headed bronze pin. With the bones were fragments
of fibula, armlets, and a bronze ligula ; at the southern
angle lay three small bronze rings ; and to the north, on a
level with the belly of the ossuary, stood the 'razor,'
worked with ' wolves' teeth ' near the blade-back.
No. 3 was stopped by a large pebble, under which,
APPENDIX. 269
with its mouth opening south, lay the main ossuary, cup-
covered and adorned under the lips and around the belly
with Grecian tracery in white. Beneath this urn appeared
a pin, and to the east a small bronze celt with cylindrical
socket (a bossolo cilindrico). Little rings of the same metal
lay below it. Mixed with the bones was a ligula, broken
into very small bits, and two fibula with amber; finally, at
the bottom of the urn the ' razor ' lay flat, worked like that
of No. 2.
No. 4 tomb resembled Nos. I and 2, but it was
much richer. A rectangle of roo metre x 070 metre,
its sandstone revetment formed a fallen cover for the
ossuary, whose mouth was turned southwards. Both it and
the cup had large graffiti in the Greek style. Among the
bones were two large bridle-bits of bronze, with their
respective belongings ; * a pin and engraved fibula. Near
the rim was a little bronze paalstab (axe), like those of
Scandinavian type, and then the ' razor.'
No. 5 was covered with a large revetment of sand-
stone. Underneath it stood the cup-covered ossuary
turned southwards. The burnt remains were accompanied
by a long cylinder of bone, worked in straight lines after
the Greek fashion. To westward lay flat a very large
and peculiar paalstab, whose faces v/ere engraved also after
the Greek way, with triple zones in zig-zag and with
toothed lines. On the south was an unusually long pin
with amber under the head, and near it lay the ' razor.'
The latter is peculiar in its greater size, in its shape, and
in its ornamentation. It is especially noteworthy for the
part between the back and the handle ; and each face is
engraved near the blade-back with Grecian ornaments like
the paalstab, the lowest being a zig-zag zone.
1 TRANSLATOR'S NOTE. — In the original 'la relativa bardatura,'
which means the whole harness or equipment of the horse — evidently
not intended here.
270 APPENDIX.
Such, then, are the five pre-Villanovan (Pelasgic ?)
sepulchres containing the ' razors.' The principal accom-
panying objects are, as I have shown, urns with large
graffiti, celts, paalstabs, fibula, and pins differing from
those of the early Villanovan era.
Under different circumstances the ' razors ' were also
found in three tombs explored by my excellent colleague,
Awocato Arsenio Crespellani (see his paper ' Di un Sepol-
creto pre-romano a Savignano sul Panaro ; ' Modena, 1874).
He discovered one adorned with ' wolves' teeth ' in a sepul-
chre which has all the characteristics of the Benacci group,
of older date than the Villanovan ; and the two others in
tombs which belong to the first Villanovan epoch.
INDEX.
ALB
A LBA Longa, foundation of, 161
•**• Albanian language, the, 164
note
Albano crater, first eruption of the,
160
Aldovrandi cited, 153
Alphabet. See Etruscan
Amorini estate, discoveries on the,
79
Ampere, J. J., cited, 71
Anthropology. See Man, Palaeon-
tology, Craniology, Italy, Bologna
Antiquities. See Etruscan
Apennines, configuration of the, 4
Apuleius cited, 43
Aria collection, 48, 109 ; villa, 109,
no, 112
Arnoaldi diggings, 95, 266, 267
Aryan, derivation of the word, 163 ;
language, 217
Aryo-Pelasgi, emigration of the,
165, 1 68 ; in Italy, 169
Asnie, Torr dai, 82
T) ACTRIANA, one of the earliest
seats of civilisation, 164
Basques, the, 164
Bassi, Ca di, tombs of, 107
Bedawin, the, 216
Bells, Etruscan, 68 ; Pagan and
Christian, 69
BOL
Benacci diggings, 93 ; tombs, 268
Bianconi, Prof. G. G., 45, 258
Birch, Dr., 223, 224, 225
Boccadelli estate, intended exca-
vations on, 1 06
Boii, the, 200
Bologna, excavations in, 3 ; its site,
4, 5 ; characteristics of, 6 sq, ;
modern improvements, 7 ; clubs
and newspapers, 8 ; statue of
Neptune in, 9 ; mediaeval and
modern, 10 ; its contadini and
aristocracy, n ; University, 12;
Anthropological Congress of 187 1
noticed, 12,28,45, 72, 85, 122, 123,
126, 129, 149, 150, 157, 175, 177,
178, 1 80, 183; antiquarian re-
searches, 14 sq. ; the city of
Felsina, 18 ; of Bononia, 19 ;
the Via Emilia, 20 ; collections
of Etruscan antiquities, 21 sq. ;
museums, ib. ; discoveries near,
79 sq. ; antiquarian factions, 82 ;
Tortorelli excavations, ib. ; Pra-
dello diggings, 85 ; scavi della
Porta S. Mamolo, 88; della
Strada S. Petronio, 90 ; of the
Certosa and Casalecchio, 93 sq. ;
ancient inscriptions, 239 ; intro-
duction of the printing press,
262
.
272
INDEX.
Bolognese, the modern dialect, 242
sq. ; its classics, 246 sq. ; pro-
verbs, 258
Bonaparte, Prince Lucien, cited,
213,214
Bononia, ancient city of, 19
Broca, Dr. Paul, his classification of
skulls, 176; cited, 197, 204, 219
Brock, Mr. E. W., 48
Bronzes, Etruscan, 33 sq., 38 sq.,
60, 65 sq.,6j, 71, 160 ; Cav. Zan-
noni on, 265
Busk, Prof., cited, 153
/^ALABRESE superstition, 35
Calari, Signor P., his discovery
of Etruscan remains, 79
Calori, Prof. L., cited, 73, 88, 91,
1 68, 187, 210, 211 ; his craniolo-
gical researches, 187 sq. ; on the
Etruscan religion, 191 ; language,
193 ; civilisation, 195 ; general
conclusions, 208 sq.
Calvert, Mr. F., on the antiquity of
man, 150
Cantalupo Mandela, skulls from, 179
Capellini, Prof. G., cited, 61, 140,
141 ; originates the Bologna
Congress, 177 ; on cannibal re-
mains, ib.
Casalecchio, excavations near, 104.
See Certosa
Cato, Major, cited, 18
Cavedoni, M., cited, 26
Celts. See Kelts
Ceramic art, Etruscan, 219
Certosa, excavations at the, 22 sq.,
93, 9S, 97; plan of, 98, 101,
265 sq. ; antiquity of, 143 ; skulls,
197,204, 210 ; inscriptions, 234
Chabas, M., cited, 15
Chierici, Abb(5, cited, 130, 131
Cieco, Francesco, Bolognese poem
by, 261
Conestabile, Prof., cited, 28, 29, 44,
53,73, H7, 139
Corssen, Prof., cited, 194, 228, 231,
236
Craniology, 175 sq. ; palaeolithic
and neolithic skulls, 175, 176,
179 ; skulls of the Bronze epoch,
178, 180 ; of Villanova and Mar-
zobotto, 1 80 sq. ; of Sardinia,
184 ; Oscan and Etruscan cal-
variae, 185, 186; Prof. L. Calori's
researches in, 187 sq.
Crawford, Lord, cited, 39, 224
Cremation, Etruscan, 101, 139
Cyprus, discoveries of General di
Cesnola and Mr. Lang in, 124
•pvAHOME, skulls from, 199
-^ Davis, Dr. J. B, 185, 186,
189, 197
Dawkins, Mr. W. B., cited, 153
De Jorio, cited, 53
De- Lucca, excavations of Cav. F.,
94
Dennis, Mr., his 'Cities and Ceme-
teries of Western Etruria,' cited,
23,63,91, 118, 120,124, 129,217,
22O, 222, 226
De Rossi, discoveries of, 158
De Rouge", M., cited, 15
Desor, M., cited, 131
Dozza, Signor G., his discovery of,
Etruscan remains, 79
T7LBA, skulls from, 178, 180
Ellis, Mr., cited, 228, 229
Etruria, early settlers of, 15 sq. ;
federations of, 15, 18, 191 ; modes
of sepulture in, 17, 141, 172 sq.,
191
Etruscan antiquities, collections of,
21 sq. ; rings, cysts, &c., 23
INDEX.
=73
tombstones, 29 sq. ; pottery, 32 ;
bronzes, 33 ; stone implements,
35 ; cylinders, 36 ; bone dice, 39 ;
toilette articles, 40 ; vases, 42 ;
the Villanova collection, 48 sq. ;
burial of the dead, 55, 131, 139 ;
discoveries on the Via y£milia,
79 sq. ; mortuary feasts, 83 ;
graffiti, id. ; the Malvasia calves,
84 ; discoveries at Pradello, 85 ;
the Mamolo < find,' 88 ; legend
of the Creation, 92 ; Certosa and
Casalecchio, 93 sg. ; fosses at
the Certosa, 100 sq. ; Marza-
botto, 109 sq. ; Misanello, 112;
funerary wells, 115 ; necropolis
of Misano, 127 sq. ; varieties of
sarcophagus, 137 sq. ; animal re-
mains, 140; alphabet, 173, 209,
237 ; skulls, 175, 187 sq., 201 ;
religion, 191 ; inscriptions, 233
sq.
Etruscan language, origin, theories,
and affinities of, 193, 210 sq.
Etruscans, their first settlements in
Italy, 172 sq. ; their rule, 174
Euganean tombstones, 28 ; lan-
guage, 194
Eugano-Veneti, the, 168
Eugubine Tables, versions of the,
'5
"TJ^ELSINA, Etruscan city of, 3,
1 8 ; remains of, 81, 97 ; skulls
of, 205 sq. ; necropolis and city,
208 ; epochs of, 268
Frati, Cav. L., relics found by, 97
Freeman, Mr. E. A., cited, 166
Cav. A., on Etruscan
^^ craniology, 182
Garbiglietti, Cav. A., cited, 182
KAR
Gellius, A., cited, 43
Geology of Italy. See Italy
Gozzadini, Count, his collection of
antiquities, 48 sj. ; cited, 56, 57,
60,61,83,85, 89, no, in, 114,
1 1 8, 129, 134, 143, 144, 1 80
Grasco-Pelasgi, their arrival in Italy,
170; decay of, 172
Greville, Mr. (' Memoirs '), cited, 242
Grotefend (' Zur Geographic von
Alt-Italien *), cited, 168
Guernsey, catacombs in, 74
TTERNICIAN valley, the, 159
Hincks, Dr., cited, 190
Horace, cited, 60
Hunfalvy, Prof. P., cited, 16, 24
' TALY, rivers of Upper, 4 ; modes
of sepulture of the Etruscan
settlers, 17, 55, 131, 139 ; geolo-
gical history of, 149 sg. ; Lower
Pliocene epoch, 150; Diluvial
epoch, 151 ; primitive man, 152
sg., 157 ; Glacial epoch, 154 ;
Alluvial epoch, 155 sg. ; eruptive
eras, 159 sg. ; modern epoch,
161 ; immigration of the Lithu-
ano-Slavs, 168 ; aborigines, ib.;
influx of the Umbrians, 169; of
the Latins, 1 70 ; of the Grasco-
Pelasgians, ib. ; of the Pelasgo-
Tyrrhenians, 172 ; of the Etrus-
cans, ib. ; cannibalism in, 177 ;
craniology of ancient, 175 sg.,
J
U VENAL, cited, 55, 63
TT'ARNAK Inscription, noticed,
1V 15
T
274
INDEX.
KEL
IV ILL.
Kelts, emigration of the, 164; their
wide extension, 165
Kistvaens, 52, 53, 75, 80, 86
T ANGUAGE. See Etruscan
Latins, their first appearance
in Italy, 170
Latium, first cities of, 159 ; vol-
canoes in, 1 60 sq.
Liano, discoveries near the Co-
mune di, 81
Lithuano-Slavs, emigrations of the,
167
Livy cited, 161
Lotto Lotti, Dr., his Bolognese
works, 246
Lucretius cited, 160
]V /TAIN A, skulls of Torre della,
1V1 i 80
M-alvasia calves, the, 84
Mamolo, discoveries near the Porta
a, 88
Man, prae-historic in Italy, 15, 150,
ip» 157, I59> 164, 179; early
civilisation and emigrations, 164
sq. ; the Kelts, ib. ; Aryo-Pelasgi,
165 sq. • Scandinavo-Teutons,
1 66 ; Lithuano-Slavs, 167 ; waves
of immigration in Italy, 168 sq.
Mandela, Cantelupo, skulls from,
179
Mariscotti estate, discoveries on
the, 80
Martial cited, 37, 62, 66
Marzabotto, discoveries at, 109 ;
prevalence of cremation at, 139 ;
antiquity and Remains of, 143 ;
skulls from, 180, 181, 182, 183 ;
inscriptions, 238 sq. •
Matray, relief of, 35
Misanello, discoveries at, \\2sq.;
PIL
an Etruscan house at, 1 14 ;
funerary wells, 115; temples,
119,121 ; aqueduct of, 123 ; skele-
tons, 124; group of Mars and
Venus, 125
Misano, necropolis of, 127 sq.,
135 sq. ; bronze weapons, 129;
thoroughfares, 132 sq.
Montegazza, Prof. P., cited, 183
Mortillet, Gabrielle de, cited, 59,
131, 144; on the tombs of Vil-
lanova, 73
Moslems, mode of sepulture of, 101
Miiller, Max, cited, 7 1
XTICOLUCCI, Prof., cited, 64,
^ 150, 178, 181, 182, 186
Niebuhr cited, 71, 195
Nunzi, Camell, Bolognese poetry
of, 256
r\ VI D, cited, 55,69
^ Orioli, Prof., cited, 72
Owen, Prof., on the conformation
of the Egyptian eye-aperture, 122
PALAEONTOLOGY of Italy,
149 ; the Romans not igno-
rant of, 152 ; first traces ot
Italian man, 153. See Italy.
Man
Palmaria island, Pigeon grot of,
140
Parker, Mr. J. H., cited, 71
Pelasgo-Tyrrhenians occupy Italy,
171
Pelloutier('Hist. des Celtes'), cited,
165
Phoenicians in Italy, 194
Pila, Monte, first eruption of,
1 60
INDEX.
275
PLI
Pliny cited, 35, 81, 171, 172
Pontecchio, remains in, 80
Ponzi, Senator, cited, 149, 153, 157
Pradello, Etruscan remains found
at, 85
Propertius cited, 32
"DAMONTE, Etruscan remains
1V at, 80
Religion, Etruscan, 191 sq.
Reno, River, 103, in
Rome, German myth theories con-
cerning, 71 ; dialects in, 250
CARCOPHAGUS, varieties of
Etruscan, 125, 137
Sardinia, ethnography of, 184, 186
Scandinavo-Teutons, emigration of,
1 66
Schio, Count G. da, cited, 28, 36,
37, 194
Sempronius cited, 18
Sepulture, 17,55, I31, *39, HI
Sgarzi, Prof., cited, 34, 57
Silius Italicus cited, 172
Skulls. See Craniology
Smith, Mr. George, his discoveries
in Assyria, 91, 92
Sogdiana, one of the earliest seats
of civilisation, 164
Spedali, cemetery of Campo degli,
97,98
Strabo cited, 171, 172
Suetonius cited, 152 sq.
Suidas cited, 91, 92
'pAGLIAVINI diggings, 266 sq.
Talon estate, explorations of
the, 103, 104
Taylor, Rev. I., on Etruscan tem-
ples, 119 ; cited, 195 ; his Etrus-
can Researches, 210 sq
Temples, Etruscan, 119 sq., 121
Thucydides cited, 168
ZAN
Tignoso, Monte, skulls from, 176
Tombs, Etruscan, 22 sq.
Tortorelli excavations, 82
Turanians, their creed, 216
Turscha, the, 172
TJMBRIANS, their influx into
^ Italy, 169; skulls of the,
198 sq.
WARRO cited, 173
Velsina. See Felsina
Venice, dialect in, 250
Via vEmilia, discoveries on the,
79 sq.
Vibrata valley, 85
'Vienna, La Liberazione di,' Bo-
lognese poem, 250
Villanova collection of remains,
48 sq. ; accounts of, ib. ; tombs
and skeletons, 50 sq., 269 ;
pottery, 56 ; ossuaries, 58 ; clay
spindles, 59, 70 ; bronze articles,
60, 65, 67,69, 71 ; toilette articles,
62 ; war implements, 64 sq. ;
novacula, 66 ; tintinnabula, 68 ;
idol, ib. ; tombs, 72 ; great anti-
quity of, 141; skulls from, 180,
181, 182, 183 ; inscriptions, 233
Virgil cited, 55, 171, 180
Vogt, Prof. Carl, 72, 177, 178, 181,
213
VXTELLS, Etruscan funerary,
115^,130
"V7"ULE, Colonel, on Aryan ety-
mology, 223
T'ANNETTI, Cav., on Etruscan
inscriptions, 235
Zannoni, Cav., his excavations, 22
sq., 97 ; cited, 39, 46, 87, 88^ 127,
235 ; on Etruscan bronzes, 265 sq.
LONDON : PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
AND PARLIAMENT STREET
GETTY CENTER LIBRARY
muni mi
3 3125 00839 2553